New Latin Grammar

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Title: New Latin Grammar

Author: Charles E. Bennett

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Language: English

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NEW LATIN GRAMMAR

BY

CHARLES E. BENNETT

Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University

_Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta_ _Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles:_ _Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat._ --HORACE, Ars Poetica.

COPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918 BY CHARLES E. BENNETT

* * * * *

PREFACE.

The present work is a revision of that published in 1908. No radical alterations have been introduced, although a number of minor changes will be noted. I have added an Introduction on the origin and development of the Latin language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and instructive to the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the book will be found an Index to the Sources of the Illustrative Examples cited in the Syntax.

C.E.B.

ITHACA, NEW YORK, May 4, 1918

* * * * *

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The present book is a revision of my Latin Grammar originally published in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been changed and made to conform to the prevailing practice of the Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive Active, the endings _-Ä«s_, _-Ä«mus_, _-Ä«tis_ are now marked long. The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna, -gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative of Association, and have abandoned the original doctrine as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive.

Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential modifications have been introduced. In its main lines the work remains unchanged.

ITHACA, NEW YORK, October 16, 1907.

* * * * *

FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

The object of this book is to present the essential facts of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student, and aims to furnish such grammatical information as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses.

The experience of foreign educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages. Within the past decade, several grammars of this scope have appeared abroad which have amply met the most exacting demands.

The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand consideration in a student's grammar.

In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such thorough consideration to versification that repetition in a separate place seems superfluous.

ITHACA, NEW YORK, December 15, 1894.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Introduction--The Latin language

PART I.

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC.

The Alphabet Â§ 1 Classification of Sounds Â§ 2 Sounds of the Letters Â§ 3 Syllables Â§ 4 Quantity Â§ 5 Accent Â§ 6 Vowel Changes Â§ 7 Consonant Changes Â§ 8 Peculiarities of Orthography Â§ 9

PART II.

INFLECTIONS.

CHAPTER I.

--_Declension._

A. NOUNS. Â§ 10

Gender of Nouns Â§ 13 Number Â§ 16 Cases Â§ 17 The Five Declensions Â§ 18 First Declension Â§ 20 Second Declension Â§ 23 Third Declension Â§ 28 Fourth Declension Â§ 48 Fifth Declension Â§ 51 Defective Nouns Â§ 54

B. ADJECTIVES. Â§ 62

Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions Â§ 63 Adjectives of the Third Declension Â§ 67 Comparison of Adjectives Â§ 71 Formation and Comparison of Adverbs Â§ 76 Numerals Â§ 78

C. PRONOUNS. Â§ 82

Personal Pronouns Â§ 84 Reflexive Pronouns Â§ 85 Possessive Pronouns Â§ 86 Demonstrative Pronouns Â§ 87 The Intensive Pronoun Â§ 88 The Relative Pronoun Â§ 89 Interrogative Pronouns Â§ 90 Indefinite Pronouns Â§ 91 Pronominal Adjectives Â§ 92

CHAPTER II.

--_Conjugation. Â§ 93_

Verb Stems Â§ 97 The Four Conjugations Â§ 98 Conjugation of Sum Â§ 100 First Conjugation Â§ 101 Second Conjugation Â§ 103 Third Conjugation Â§ 105 Fourth Conjugation Â§ 107 Verbs in _-iÅ_ of the Third Conjugation Â§ 109 Deponent Verbs Â§ 112 Semi-Deponents Â§ 114 Periphrastic Conjugation Â§ 115 Peculiarities of Conjugation Â§ 116 Formation of the Verb Stems Â§ 117 List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts Â§ 120 Irregular Verbs Â§ 124 Defective Verbs Â§ 133 Impersonal Verbs Â§ 138

PART III.

PARTICLES. Â§ 139

Adverbs Â§ 140 Prepositions Â§ 141 Interjections Â§ 145

PART IV.

WORD FORMATION.

I. DERIVATIVES. Â§ 146

Nouns Â§ 147 Adjectives Â§ 150 Verbs Â§ 155 Adverbs Â§ 157

II. COMPOUNDS. Â§ 158

Examples of Compounds Â§ 159

PART V.

SYNTAX.

CHAPTER I.

--_Sentences._

Classification of Sentences Â§ 161 Form of Interrogative Sentences Â§ 162 Subject and Predicate Â§ 163 Simple and Compound Sentences Â§ 164

CHAPTER II.

--_Syntax of Nouns._

Subject Â§ 166 Predicate Nouns Â§ 167 Appositives Â§ 169 The Nominative Â§ 170 The Accusative Â§ 172 The Dative Â§ 186 The Genitive Â§ 194 The Ablative Â§ 213 The Locative Â§ 232

CHAPTER III.

--_Syntax of Adjectives._

Agreement of Adjectives Â§ 234 Adjectives used Substantively Â§ 236 Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs Â§ 239 Comparatives and Superlatives Â§ 240 Other Peculiarities Â§ 241

CHAPTER IV.

--_Syntax of Pronouns._

Personal Pronouns Â§ 242 Possessive Pronouns Â§ 243 Reflexive Pronouns Â§ 244 Reciprocal Pronouns Â§ 245 Demonstrative Pronouns Â§ 246 Relative Pronouns Â§ 250 Indefinite Pronouns Â§ 252 Pronominal Adjectives Â§ 253

CHAPTER V.

--_Syntax of Verbs._

Agreement of Verbs Â§ 254 Voices Â§ 256 Tenses -- Of the Indicative Â§ 257 -- Of the Subjunctive Â§ 266 -- Of the Infinitive Â§ 270 Moods -- In Independent Sentences Â§ 271 -- -- Volitive Subjunctive Â§ 273 -- -- Optative Subjunctive Â§ 279 -- -- Potential Subjunctive Â§ 280 -- -- Imperative Â§ 281 -- In Dependent Clauses -- -- Clauses of Purpose Â§ 282 -- -- Clauses of Characteristic Â§ 283 -- -- Clauses of Result Â§ 284 -- -- Causal Clauses Â§ 285 -- -- Temporal Clauses -- -- -- Introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, etc. Â§ 287 -- -- -- _Cum_-Clauses Â§ 288 -- -- -- Introduced by Antequam and Priusquam Â§ 291 -- -- -- Introduced by Dum, _DÅnec_, Quoad Â§ 293 -- -- Substantive Clauses Â§ 294 -- -- -- Developed from the Volitive Â§ 295 -- -- -- Developed from the Optative Â§ 296 -- -- -- Of Result Â§ 297 -- -- -- After _nÅn dubito_, etc. Â§ 298 -- -- -- Introduced by Quod Â§ 299 -- -- -- Indirect Questions Â§ 300 -- -- Conditional Sentences Â§ 301 -- -- Use of _SÄ«_, Nisi, _SÄ«n_ Â§ 306 -- -- Conditional Clauses of Comparison Â§ 307 -- -- Concessive Clauses Â§ 308 -- -- Adversative Clauses with _QuamvÄ«s_, Quamquam, etc. Â§ 309 -- -- Clauses of Wish and Proviso Â§ 310 -- -- Relative Clauses Â§ 311 -- -- Indirect Discourse Â§ 313 -- -- -- Moods in Indirect Discourse Â§ 314 -- -- -- Tenses in Indirect Discourse Â§ 317 -- -- -- Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse Â§ 319 -- -- Implied Indirect Discourse Â§ 323 -- -- Subjunctive by Attraction Â§ 324 Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb Â§ 325 -- Infinitive Â§ 326 -- Participles Â§ 336 -- Gerund Â§ 338 -- Supine Â§ 340

CHAPTER VI.

--_Particles._

CoÃ¶rdinate Conjunctions Â§ 341 Adverbs Â§ 347

CHAPTER VII.

--_Word-Order and Sentence-Structure._

Word-Order Â§ 348 Sentence-Structure Â§ 351

CHAPTER VIII.

--_Hints on Latin Style. Â§ 352_

Nouns Â§ 353 Adjectives Â§ 354 Pronouns Â§ 355 Verbs Â§ 356 The Cases Â§ 357

PART VI.

PROSODY. Â§ 360

Quantity of Vowels and Syllables Â§ 362 Verse-Structure Â§ 366 The Dactylic Hexameter Â§ 368 The Dactylic Pentameter Â§ 369 Iambic Measures Â§ 370

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I. Roman Calendar Â§ 371 II. Roman Names Â§ 373 III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric Â§ 374

* * * * *

Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the Syntax Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs General Index Footnotes

* * * * *

INTRODUCTION.

THE LATIN LANGUAGE.

1. The Indo-European Family of Languages.--Latin belongs to one group of a large family of languages, known as _Indo-European_.[1] This Indo-European family of languages embraces the following groups:

ASIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

a. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were several stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of the Vedic Hymns. These Hymns are the oldest literary productions known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European family. A conservative estimate places them as far back as 1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a thousand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C.

The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be spoken in India, and is represented to-day by a large number of dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by millions of people.

b. The Iranian, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related to the Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian was the official language of the court, and appears in a number of so-called cuneiform[2] inscriptions, the earliest of which date from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The other branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,[3] is the language of the Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoroaster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions of these sacred books may have been composed as early as 1000 B.C.

Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian speech. It has naturally been much modified by time, particularly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic.

c. The Armenian, spoken in Armenia, the district near the Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to the Iranian, and was formerly classified under that group. It is now recognized as entitled to independent rank. The earliest literary productions of the Armenian language date from the fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To this period belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered locations in which the Armenians are found to-day.

d. The Tokharian. This language, only recently discovered and identified as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan). While in some respects closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows close relationship to the European members of the family. The literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era.

EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY.

e. The Greek. The Greeks had apparently long been settled in Greece and Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably they arrived in these districts much earlier. The earliest literary productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very likely go back to the ninth century B.C. From the sixth century B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek, when we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.

f. _The Italic Group._ The Italic Group embraces the Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian peninsula (in ancient Umbria); the Latin, spoken in the central part (in Latium); the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium, Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a number of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all these (barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few scanty inscriptions. Latin literature begins shortly after 250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plautus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a much earlier period.

g. _The Celtic._ In the earliest historical times of which we have any record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of northern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe; but after the second century B.C., they are found only in Gaul and the British Isles. Among the chief languages belonging to the Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul; the Breton, still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the Irish, which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the common people, the Welsh; and the Gaelic of the Scotch Highlanders.

h. _The Teutonic._ The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its earliest representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about 375 A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group are the Old Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and from which are descended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish; German; Dutch; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the modern English.

i. _The Balto-Slavic._ The languages of this group belong to eastern Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. The earliest literary productions of these languages date from the sixteenth century. The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old Bulgarian, in which we find a translation of the Bible dating from the ninth century.

j. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece, Italy, and Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of words borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature does not begin till the seventeenth century.

2. Home of the Indo-European Family.--Despite the many outward differences of the various languages of the foregoing groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelmingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe, therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above enumerated languages are descended. The precise location of the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For a long time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected as untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached for a long while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the original seat of the Indo-European Family. Hence the home was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it is thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a problem can hardly be expected.

As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the Indo-European languages have sprung, we can only speculate. It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact racial and linguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands of years.

The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the various individual languages began their separate existence, is likewise shrouded in obscurity. When we consider that the separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C., or possibly earlier.

3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language.--The earliest remains of the Latin language are found in certain very archaic inscriptions. The oldest of these belong to the sixth and seventh centuries B.C. Roman literature does not begin till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the middle of the third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly marked periods of the language and literature:

a. The Preliterary Period, from the earliest times down to 240 B.C., when Livius Andronicus brought out his first play. For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclusively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this remote time. Few of these are of any length.

b. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to Cicero (81 B.C.). Even in this age the language had already become highly developed as a medium of expression. In the hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it naturally marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days. To this period belong:

Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation of Homer's Odyssey; Tragedies). Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies). Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. ("Punic War"; Comedies). Ennius, 239-169 B.C. ("Annals"; Tragedies). Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies). Lucilius, 180-103 B.C. (Satires). Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies). Accius, 170-about 85 B.C. (Tragedies).

c. The Golden Age, from Cicero (81 B.C.) to the death of Augustus (14 A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection. Its vocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest fullness and range. Traces of the diction of the Archaic Period are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times. Literature reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the great poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong here:

Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean Philosophy). Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet). Cicero, 106-43 B.C. (Orations; Rhetorical Works; Philosophical Works; Letters). Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and Civil Wars), Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian). Nepos, about 100-about 30 B.C. (Historian). Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bucolics"). Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes; Satires, Epistles). Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet). Propertius, about 50-about 15 B.C. (Poet). Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses" and other poems). Livy. 59 B.C.-17 A.D. (Historian).

d. The Silver Latinity, from the death of Augustus (14 A.D.) to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 A.D.), This period is marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of the previous age. It had become the practice to pay too much attention to standardized forms of expression, and to leave too little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now manifests itself. We note also the introduction of idioms from the colloquial language, along with many poetical words and usages. The following authors deserve mention:

Phaedrus, flourished about 40 A.D. (Fables in Verse) Velleius Paterculus, flourished about 30 A.D. (Historian). Lucan, 39-65 A.D. (Poem on the Civil War). Seneca, about 1-65 A.D. (Tragedies; Philosophical Works). Pliny the Elder, 23-79 A.D. ("Natural History"). Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 A.D. ("Letters"). Martial, about 45-about 104 A.D. (Epigrams). Quintilian, about 35-about 100 A.D. (Treatise on Oratory and Education). Tacitus, about 55-about 118 A.D. (Historian). Juvenal, about 55-about 135 A.D. (Satirist). Suetonius, about 73-about 118 A.D. ("Lives of the Twelve Caesars"). Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 A.D. (First Christian Apologist). Apuleius, 125-about 200 A.D. ("Metamorphoses," or "Golden Ass").

e. _The Archaizing Period._ This period is characterized by a conscious imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and first centuries B.C.; it overlaps the preceding period, and is of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point of view. Of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand we have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the "Attic Nights." Both of these writers flourished in the second half of the second century A.D.

f. The Period of the Decline, from 180 to the close of literary activity in the sixth century A.D. This period is characterized by rapid and radical alterations in the language. The features of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade the literature, while in the remote provinces, such as Gaul, Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period are:

Tertullian, about 160-about 240 A.D. (Christian Writer). Cyprian, about 200-258 A.D. (Christian Writer). Lactantius, flourished about 300 A.D. (Defense of Christianity). Ausonius, about 310-about 395 A.D. (Poet). Jerome, 340-420 A.D. (Translator of the Scriptures). Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father). Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father--"City of God"). Prudentius, flourished 400 A.D. (Christian Poet). Claudian, flourished 400 A.D. (Poet). BoÃ«thius, about 480-524 A.D. ("Consolation of Philosophy ").

4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language.--After the sixth century A.D. Latin divides into two entirely different streams. One of these is the literary language maintained in courts, in the Church, and among scholars. This was no longer the language of people in general, and as time went on, became more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial idiom of the common people, which developed ultimately in the provinces into the modern so-called Romance idioms. These are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, ProvenÃ§al (spoken in Provence, i.e. southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance (spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in Switzerland), and the Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts. All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of languages bear to the parent speech.

* * * * *

PART I.

* * * * *

SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.

* * * * *

THE ALPHABET.

1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, except that the Latin has no w.

1. K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words--chiefly Greek.

2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.

2. 1. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.

2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants.

3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these,--

a) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,[4] i.e. sounded without voice or vibration of the vocal cords.

b) b, d, g are voiced,[5] i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal cords.

c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclusively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + h, c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. _loop-hole_, _hot-house_, _block-house_.

4. The Mutes admit of classification also as

Labials, p, b, ph. Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th. Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch.

5. The Liquids are l, r. These sounds were voiced.

6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute also had another sound,--that of ng in sing,--the so-called n _adulterÄ«num_; as,--

anceps, double, pronounced angceps.

7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless.

8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced.

9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. See Â§ 3, 3.

10. The following table will indicate the relations of the consonant sounds:--

VOICELESS. VOICED. ASPIRATES. p, b, ph, (Labials). Mutes, t, d, th, (Dentals). c, k, q, g, ch, (Gutturals). Liquids, l, r, Nasals, m, n, f, (Labial). Spirants, s, (Dental). h, (Guttural). Semivowels, j, v.

a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization; i.e., roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 A.D.

1. Vowels.

Ä as in _father_; Äƒ as in the first syllable _ahÃ¡_; Ä“ as in _they_; Ä• as in _met_; Ä« as in _machine_; Ä as in _pin_; Å as in _note_; Å as in obey, _melody_; Å« as in _rude_; Å as in _put_; y like French u, German _Ã¼_.

2. Diphthongs.

ae like ai in eu with its two elements, Ä• and Å, _aisle_; pronounced in rapid succession; oe like oi in _oil_; ui occurs almost exclusively in ei as in _rein_; cui and huic. These words may au like ow in _how_; be pronounced as though written kwee and wheek.

3. Consonants.

b, d, f, h, k, l, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt.

c is always pronounced as k.

t is always a plain t, never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration.

g always as in _get_; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of gw, as in anguis, languidus.

j has the sound of y as in yet.

r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue.

s always voiceless as in _sin_; in suÄdeÅ, suÄvis, suÄ“scÅ, and in compounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of sw.

v like w.

x always like _ks_; never like Eng. gz or z.

z uncertain in sound; possibly like Eng. zd, possibly like z. The latter sound is recommended.

The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. p, c, _t_--so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice.

Doubled letters, like ll, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctly articulated.

SYLLABLES.

4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs.

In the division of words into syllables,--

1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit, pe-rit, a-dest.

2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus.

3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the preceding vowel; as, ma-gis-trÄ«, dig-nus, mÅn-strum, sis-te-re.

4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consist of a mute followed by l or r (pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.). In such cases both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel; as, a-grÄ«, vo-lu-cris, pa-tris, mÄ-tris. Yet if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the two consonants are separated; as, ab-rumpÅ, ad-lÄtus.

5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel; as, ax-is, tÄ“x-Ä«.

QUANTITY.

5. A. Quantity of Vowels.

A vowel is long or short according to the length of time required for its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience; but the following principles are of aid:--

1. A vowel is long,[6]--

a) before nf or ns; as, Ä«nfÄns, Ä«nferior, cÅnsÅ«mÅ, cÄ“nseÅ, Ä«nsum.

b) when the result of contraction; as, nÄ«lum for nihilum.

2. A vowel is short,--

a) before nt, nd; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occur in compounds whose first member has a long vowel; as, nÅndum (nÅn dum).

b) before another vowel, or h; as, meus, trahÅ. Some exceptions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek; as, AenÄ“Äs.

B. Quantity of Syllables.

Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time required for their pronunciation.

1. A syllable is long,[7]--

a) if it contains a long vowel; as, mÄter, rÄ“gnum, dÄ«us.

b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.

c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two consonants (except a mute with l or r); as, axis, gaza, restÅ.

2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, mea, amat.

3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with l or r, i.e. by pl, cl, tl; pr, cr, tr, etc.; as, ÄƒgrÄ«, volÅcris.[8] Such syllables are called common. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet.

NOTE.--These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by separating the two elements (as ag-rÄ«) the poets were able to use such syllables as long.

ACCENT.

6. 1. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first; as, tÃ©git, mÅÂ´rem.

2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the antepenult (second from the last); as, amÄÂ´vÄ«, amÃ¡ntis, mÃserum.

3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented; as, miserÅÂ´que, hominÃsque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the accent on the antepenult. Thus, pÃ³rtaque; but mÃserÃ¡que.

4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent; as, tantÅÂ´n, istÄ«Â´c, illÅ«Â´c.

5. In utrÄƒÂ´que, each, and plÄ“rÄƒÂ´que, most, -que is not properly an enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases,--utÃ©rque, utrÃºmque, plÄ“rÃºmque.

VOWEL CHANGES.[9]

7.. 1. In Compounds,

a) Ä• before a single consonant becomes Ä; as,--

colligÅ for con-legÅ.

b) Äƒ before a single consonant becomes Ä: as,--

adigÅ for ad-agÅ.

c) Äƒ before two consonants becomes Ä“; as,--

expers for ex-pars.

d) ae becomes Ä«; as,--

conquÄ«rÅ for con-quaerÅ.

e) au becomes Å«, sometimes Å; as,--

conclÅ«dÅ for con-claudÅ; explÅdÅ for ex-plaudÅ.

2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed; as,--

trÄ“s for tre-es; cÅpia for co-opia; mÄlÅ for ma(v)elÅ; cÅgÅ for co-agÅ; amÄstÄ« for amÄ(v)istÄ«; cÅmÅ for co-emÅ; dÄ“beÅ for dÄ“(h)abeÅ; jÅ«nior for ju(v)enior. nÄ«l for nihil;

3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops; as,--

vinculum for earlier vinclum.

So perÄ«culum, saeculum.

4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope; as,--

Ärdor for Äridor (compare _Äridus_); valdÄ“ for validÄ“ (compare _validus_).

CONSONANT CHANGES[10]

8. 1. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r; as,--

arbÅs, Gen. arboris (for arbosis); genus, Gen. generis (for genesis); dirimÅ (for dis-emÅ).

2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss; as,--

pÄ“nsum for pend-tum; versum for vert-tum; mÄ«les for mÄ«let-s; sessus for sedtus; passus for pattus.

3. Final consonants were often omitted; as,--

cor for cord; lac for lact.

4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus: accurrÅ (adc-); aggerÅ (adg-); asserÅ (ads-); allÄtus (adl-); apportÅ (adp-); attulÄ« (adt-); arrÄ«deÅ (adr-); afferÅ (adf-); occurrÅ (obc-); suppÅnÅ (subp-); offerÅ (obf-); corruÅ (comr-); collÄtus (coml-); etc.

5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus:--

a) b before s or t becomes p; as,--

scrÄ«psÄ« (scrÄ«b-sÄ«), scrÄ«ptum (scrÄ«b-tum).

b) g before s or t becomes c; as,--

Äctus (Äg-tus).

c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n; as,--

eundem (eum-dem); prÄ«nceps (prÄ«m-ceps).

PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

9. Many words have variable orthography.

1. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevailing forms almost down to the Augustan age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubÄ«dÅ, etc. down to about the same era; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libÄ«dÅ, etc.

2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples are exspectÅ, expectÅ; exsistÅ, existÅ; epistula, epistola; adulÄ“scÄ“ns, adolÄ“scÄ“ns; paulus, paullus; cottÄ«diÄ“, cotÄ«diÄ“; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling; as,--

ad-gerÅ or aggerÅ; ad-serÅ or asserÅ; ad-liciÅ or alliciÅ; in-lÄtus or illÄtus; ad-rogÄns or arrogÄns; sub-moveÅ or summoveÅ; and many others.

3. Compounds of jaciÅ were usually written Ä“iciÅ, dÄ“iciÅ, adiciÅ, obiciÅ, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjiciÅ, objiciÅ, etc.

4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antÄ«quos, antÄ«quom; saevos; perpetuos; equos; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontur; -vont, -vontur; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as, relinquont, loquontur; vÄ«vont, metuont.

The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.

* * * * *

PART II.

* * * * *

INFLECTIONS.

* * * * *

10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in English, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article.

11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declension; in case of verbs, Conjugation.

* * * * *

CHAPTER I.

--_Declension._

A. NOUNS.

12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or _quality_; as, Caesar, _Caesar_; RÅma, _Rome_; penna, _feather_; virtÅ«s, courage.

1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are permanent names of persons or places; as, Caesar, RÅma. Other nouns are Common: as, penna, virtÅ«s.

2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.

a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects; as, mÅns, _mountain_; pÄ“s, _foot_; diÄ“s, _day_; mÄ“ns, mind.

Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns; as, legiÅ, _legion_; comitÄtus, retinue.

b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, cÅnstantia, _steadfastness_; paupertÄs, poverty.

GENDER OF NOUNS.

13. There are three Genders,--Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or grammatical.

Natural Gender.

14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons; and these are--

1. Masculine, if they denote males; as,--

nauta, _sailor_; agricola, farmer.

2. Feminine, if they denote females; as,--

mÄter, _mother_; rÄ“gÄ«na, queen.

Grammatical Gender.

15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Feminine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender:--

_A. Gender determined by Signification._

1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Masculine; as,--

SÄ“quana, _Seine_; Eurus, _east wind_; AprÄ«lis, April.

2. Names of Trees, and such names of Towns and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine; as,--

quercus, _oak_; Corinthus, _Corinth_; Rhodus, Rhodes.

Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below); as,--

DelphÄ«, n.; Leuctra, n.; TÄ«bur, n.; CarthÄgÅ, f.

3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are Neuter; as,--

nihil, _nothing_; nefÄs, _wrong_; amÄre, to love.

NOTE.--Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river), f.

_B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular._

The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.[11]

NOTE 1.--_Common Gender._ Certain nouns are sometimes Masculine, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdÅs may mean either priest or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also cÄ«vis, _citizen_; parÄ“ns, _parent_; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be common.

NOTE 2.--Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, Änser, m., goose or gander. So vulpÄ“s, f., _fox_; aquÄ«la, f., eagle.

NUMBER.

16. The Latin has two Numbers,--the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object, the Plural, more than one.

CASES.

17. There are six Cases in Latin:--

Nominative, Case of Subject; Genitive, Objective with of, or Possessive; Dative, Objective with to or _for_; Accusative, Case of Direct Object; Vocative, Case of Address; Ablative, Objective with by, from, in, with.

1. LOCATIVE. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words.

2. OBLIQUE CASES. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative are called Oblique Cases.

3. STEM AND CASE-ENDINGS. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.[12] Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The _apparent case-ending_ thus resulting is called a termination.

THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.

18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows:--

DECLENSION. FINAL LETTER OF STEM. GEN. TERMINATION. First Ä -ae Second Å -Ä« Third Ä / Some consonant -Ä«s Fourth Å -Å«s Fifth Ä“ -Ä“Ä« / -Ä•Ä«

Cases alike in Form.

19. 1. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.

2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.

3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -Äƒ.

4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative.

* * * * *

FIRST DECLENSION.

Ä-Stems.

20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regularly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -Äƒ, weakened from -Ä, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows:--

Porta, _gate_; stem, portÄ-.

SINGULAR. CASES. MEANINGS. TERMINATIONS. _Nom._ porta a gate (as subject) -Äƒ _Gen._ portae of a gate -ae _Dat._ portae to or for a gate -ae _Acc._ portam a gate (as object) -am _Voc._ porta _O gate!_ -Äƒ _Abl._ portÄ _with, by, from, in a gate_ -Ä

PLURAL. _Nom._ portae gates (as subject) -ae _Gen._ portÄrum of gates -Ärum _Dat._ portÄ«s to or for gates -Ä«s _Acc._ portÄs gates (as object) -Äs _Voc._ portae _O gates!_ -ae _Abl._ portÄ«s _with, by, from, in gates_ -Ä«s

1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate or _the gate_; and in the Plural, gates or the gates.

Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.

21. 1. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. Nouns denoting males are Masculine; as, nauta, _sailor_; agricola, _farmer_; also, Hadria, Adriatic Sea.

2. Rare Case-Endings,--

a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -Äs is preserved in the combination pater familiÄs, _father of a family_; also in mÄter familiÄs, fÄ«lius familiÄs, fÄ«lia familiÄs. But the regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions; as, pater familiae.

b) In poetry a Genitive in -ÄÄ« also occurs; as, aulÄÄ«.

c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae; as, RÅmae, at Rome.

d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -Ärum sometimes occurs; as, Dardanidum instead of DardanidÄrum. This termination -um is not a contraction of -Ärum, but represents an entirely different case-ending.

e) Instead of the regular ending -Ä«s, we usually find -Äbus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and fÄ«lia, daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and fÄ«lius, son. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity; as, lÄ«bertÄbus (from lÄ«berta, _freedwoman_), equÄbus (_mares_), to avoid confusion with lÄ«bertÄ«s (from lÄ«bertus, _freedman_) and equÄ«s (from equus, _horse_).

Greek Nouns.

22. These end in -Ä“ (Feminine); -Äs and -Ä“s (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows:--

ArchiÄs, EpitomÄ“, ComÄ“tÄ“s, comet. Archias. epitome. _Nom._ ArchiÄs epitomÄ“ comÄ“tÄ“s _Gen._ Archiae epitomÄ“s comÄ“tae _Dat._ Archiae epitomae comÄ“tae _Acc._ Archiam (or -Än) epitomÄ“n comÄ“tÄ“n _Voc._ ArchiÄ epitomÄ“ comÄ“tÄ“ (or -Äƒ) _Abl._ ArchiÄ epitomÄ“ comÄ“tÄ“ (or -Ä)

1. But most Greek nouns in -Ä“ become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are declined like porta; as, grammatica, _grammar_; mÅ«sica, _music_; rhÄ“torica, rhetoric.

2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.

* * * * *

SECOND DECLENSION.

Å-Stems.

23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative.

Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows:--

Hortus, _garden_; Bellum, _war_; stem, hortÅ-. stem, bellÅ-. SINGULAR. TERMINATION. TERMINATION. _Nom._ hortus -us bellum -um _Gen._ hortÄ« -Ä« bellÄ« -Ä« _Dat._ hortÅ -Å bellÅ -Å _Acc._ hortum -um bellum -um _Voc._ horte -e bellum -um _Abl._ hortÅ -Å bellÅ -Å

PLURAL. _Nom._ hortÄ« -Ä« bella -a _Gen._ hortÅrum -Årum bellÅrum -Årum _Dat._ hortÄ«s -Ä«s bellÄ«s -Ä«s _Acc._ hortÅs -Ås bella -a _Voc._ hortÄ« -Ä« bella -a _Abl._ hortÄ«s -Ä«s bellÄ«s -Ä«s

Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows:--

Puer, _boy_; Ager, _field_; Vir, _man_; stem, puerÅ- stem, agrÅ- stem, virÅ- SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ puer ager vir Wanting _Gen._ puerÄ« agrÄ« virÄ« -Ä« _Dat._ puerÅ agrÅ virÅ -Å _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Voc._ puer ager vir Wanting _Abl._ puerÅ agrÅ virÅ -Å

PLURAL. _Nom._ puerÄ« agrÄ« virÄ« -Ä« _Gen._ puerÅrum agrÅrum virÅrum -Årum _Dat._ puerÄ«s agrÄ«s virÄ«s -Ä«s _Acc._ puerÅs agrÅs virÅs -Ås _Voc._ puerÄ« agrÄ« virÄ« -Ä« _Abl._ puerÄ«s agrÄ«s virÄ«s -Ä«s

1. Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular.

In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r.

2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer: adulter, _adulterer_; gener, _son-in-law_; LÄ«ber, _Bacchus_; socer, _father-in-law_; vesper, _evening_; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger.

Nouns in _-vus_, _-vum_, _-quus_.

24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin,--an earlier and a later,--as follows:--

_Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero)._ Servos, m., Aevom, n., Equos, m., slave. age. horse. SINGULAR. _Nom._ servos aevom equos _Gen._ servÄ« aevÄ« equÄ« _Dat._ servÅ aevÅ equÅ _Acc._ servom aevom equom _Voc._ serve aevom eque _Abl._ servÅ aevÅ equÅ

_Later inflection (after Cicero)._ SINGULAR. _Nom._ servus aevum equus _Gen._ servÄ« aevÄ« equÄ« _Dat._ servÅ aevÅ equÅ _Act._ servum aevum equum _Voc._ serve aevum eque _Abl._ servÅ aevÅ equÅ

1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.

Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.

25. 1. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -Ä« (instead of -iÄ«), and the Vocative Singular in -Ä« (for -ie); as VergÃlÄ«, of Virgil, or O Virgil (instead of VergiliÄ«, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -aÄ«, -eÄ«, as Pompejus, PompeÄ«.

2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i (instead of -iÄ«); as,--

_Nom._ ingenium fÄ«lius _Gen._ ingÃ©nÄ« fÄ«lÄ«

These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.

3. FÄ«lius forms the Vocative Singular in -Ä« (for -ie); viz. fÄ«lÄ«, _O son!_

4. Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows:--

_Nom._ dÄ« (deÄ«) _Gen._ deÅrum (deum) _Dat._ dÄ«s (deÄ«s) _Acc._ deÅs _Voc._ dÄ« (deÄ«) _Abl._ dÄ«s (deÄ«s)

5. The Locative Singular ends in -Ä«; as, CorinthÄ«, at Corinth.

6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -Årum,--

a) in words denoting money and measure; as, talentum, _of talents_; modium, _of pecks_; sÄ“stertium, of sesterces.

b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir; as, duumvirum.

c) sometimes in other words; as, lÄ«berum, _of the children_; socium, of the allies.

Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.

26. 1. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception:--

a) Names of towns, islands, trees--according to the general rule laid down in Â§ 15, 2; also some names of countries; as Aegyptus, Egypt.

b) Five special words,--

alvus, _belly_; carbasus, _flax_; colus, _distaff_; humus, _ground_; vannus, _winnowing-fan_.

c) A few Greek Feminines; as,--

atomus, _atom_; diphthongus, diphthong.

2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter:--

pelagus, _sea_; vÄ«rus, _poison_; vulgus, crowd.

Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.

27. These end in -os, -Ås, Masculine or Feminine; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows:--

Barbitos, m. AndrogeÅs, m., Äªlion, n., and f., _Androgeos._ _Troy._ _lyre._ _Nom._ barbitos AndrogeÅs Äªlion _Gen._ barbitÄ« AndrogeÅ, -Ä« ÄªliÄ« _Dat._ barbitÅ AndrogeÅ ÄªliÅ _Acc._ barbiton AndrogeÅ, -Ån Äªlion _Voc._ barbite AndrogeÅs Äªlion _Abl._ barbitÅ AndrogeÅ ÄªliÅ

1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um instead of -on; as, DÄ“lum, Delos.

2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.

3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be consulted.

* * * * *

THIRD DECLENSION.

28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -Ä«, -Å, -y, -c, -l, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems,--

I. Pure Consonant-Stems. II. Ä-Stems. III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of Ä-Stems. IV. A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong. V. Irregular Nouns.

I. Consonant-Stems.

29. 1. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized.

2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.

_A. Mute-Stems._

30. Mute-Stems may end,--

1. In a Labial (p); as, prÄ«ncep-s.

2. In a Guttural (g or c); as, rÄ“mex (rÄ“meg-s); dux (duc-s).

3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); mÄ«les (mÄ«let-s).

1. STEMS IN A LABIAL MUTE (p).

31. PrÄ«nceps, m., chief.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ prÄ«nceps -s _Gen._ prÄ«ncipis -is _Dat._ prÄ«ncipÄ« -Ä« _Acc._ prÄ«ncipem -em _Voc._ prÄ«nceps -s _Abl._ prÄ«ncipe -e

PLURAL. _Nom._ prÄ«ncipÄ“s -Ä“s _Gen._ prÄ«ncipum -um _Dat._ prÄ«ncipibus -ibus _Acc._ prÄ«ncipÄ“s -Ä“s _Voc._ prÄ«ncipÄ“s -Ä“s _Abl._ prÄ«ncipibus -ibus

2. STEMS IN A GUTTURAL MUTE (g, c).

32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x.

RÄ“mex, m., rower. Dux, c., leader. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ rÄ“mex rÄ“migÄ“s dux ducÄ“s _Gen._ rÄ“migis rÄ“migum ducis ducum _Dat._ rÄ“migÄ« rÄ“migibus ducÄ« ducibus _Acc._ rÄ“migem rÄ“migÄ“s ducem ducÄ“s _Voc._ rÄ“mex rÄ“migÄ“s dux ducÄ“s _Abl._ rÄ“mige rÄ“migibus duce ducibus

3. STEMS IN A DENTAL MUTE (d, t).

33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nominative Singular before the ending -s.

Lapis, m., stone. MÄ«les, m., soldier. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ lapis lapidÄ“s mÄ«les mÄ«litÄ“s _Gen._ lapidis lapidum mÄ«litis mÄ«litum _Dat._ lapidÄ« lapidibus mÄ«litÄ« mÄ«litibus _Acc._ lapidem lapidÄ“s mÄ«litem mÄ«litÄ“s _Voc._ lapis lapidÄ“s mÄ«les mÄ«litÄ“s _Abl._ lapide lapidibus mÄ«lite mÄ«litibus

_B. Liquid Stems._

34. These end in -l or -r.

Vigil, m., Victor, m., Aequor, n., watchman. conqueror. sea.

SINGULAR. _Nom._ vigil victor aequor _Gen._ vigilis victÅris aequoris _Dat._ vigilÄ« victÅrÄ« aequorÄ« _Acc._ vigilem victÅrem aequor _Voc._ vigil victor aequor _Abl._ vigile victÅre aequore

PLURAL. _Nom._ vigilÄ“s victÅrÄ“s aequora _Gen._ vigilum victÅrum aequorum _Dat._ vigilibus victÅribus aequoribus _Acc._ vigilÄ“s victÅrÄ“s aequora _Voc._ vigilÄ“s victÅrÄ“s aequora _Abl._ vigilibus victÅribus aequoribus

1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nominative and Vocative Singular without termination.

2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.

_C. Nasal Stems._

35. These end in -n,[13] which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.

LeÅ, m., lion. NÅmen, n., name SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ leÅ leÅnÄ“s nÅmen nÅmina _Gen._ leÅnis leÅnum nÅminis nÅminum _Dat._ leÅnÄ« leÅnibus nÅminÄ« nÅminibus _Acc._ leÅnem leÅnÄ“s nÅmen nÅmina _Voc._ leÅ leÅnÄ“s nÅmen nÅmina _Abl._ leÅne leÅnibus nÅmine nÅminibus

_D. s-Stems._

36. MÅs, m. Genus, n., Honor, m., custom. race. honor.

SINGULAR. _Nom._ mÅs genus honor _Gen._ mÅris generis honÅris _Dat._ mÅrÄ« generÄ« honÅrÄ« _Acc._ mÅrem genus honÅrem _Voc._ mÅs genus honor _Abl._ mÅre genere honÅre

PLURAL. _Nom._ mÅrÄ“s genera honÅrÄ“s _Gen._ mÅrum generum honÅrum _Dat._ mÅribus generibus honÅribus _Acc._ mÅrÄ“s genera honÅrÄ“s _Voc._ mÅrÄ“s genera honÅrÄ“s _Abl._ mÅribus generibus honÅribus

1. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honÅs, colÅs, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry.

II. Ä-Stems.

_A. Masculine and Feminine Ä-Stems._

37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singular, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -Ä«, and the Accusative Plural in -Ä«s; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -Ä“s, the endings of Consonant-Stems.

38. Tussis, f., Äªgnis, m., Hostis, c., _cough_; stem, _fire_; stem, _enemy_; stem, tussi-. Ä«gni-. hosti-.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ tussis Ä«gnis hostis -is _Gen._ tussis Ä«gnis hostis -is _Dat._ tussÄ« Ä«gnÄ« hostÄ« -Ä« _Acc._ tussim Ä«gnem hostem -im, -em _Voc._ tussis Ä«gnis hostis -is _Abl._ tussÄ« Ä«gnÄ« or e hoste -Ä«, -e

PLURAL. _Nom._ tussÄ“s Ä«gnÄ“s hostÄ“s -Ä“s _Gen._ tussium Ä«gnium hostium -ium _Dat._ tussibus Ä«gnibus hostibus -ibus _Acc._ tussÄ«s or -Ä“s Ä«gnÄ«s or -Ä“s hostÄ«s or -Ä“s -Ä«s, -Ä“s _Voc._ tussÄ“s Ä«gnÄ“s hostÄ“s -Ä“s _Abl._ tussibus Ä«gnibus hostibus -ibus

1. To the same class belong--

apis, bee. crÄtis, hurdle. â€ *secÅ«ris, axe. auris, ear. *febris, fever. sÄ“mentis, sowing. avis, bird. orbis, circle. â€ *sitis, thirst. axis, axle. ovis, sheep. torris, brand. *bÅ«ris, _plough-beam_. pelvis, basin. â€ *turris, tower. clÄvis, key. puppis, stern. trudis, pole. collis, hill. restis, rope. vectis, lever. and many others.

Words marked with a star regularly have Acc. -im; those marked with a â€  regularly have Abl. -Ä«. Of the others, many at times show -im and -Ä«. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -Ä«.

2. Not all nouns in -is are Ä-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, notably, canis, _dog_; juvenis, youth.[14]

3. Some genuine Ä-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s; anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, _death_; dÅs, _dowry_; nox, _night_; sors, _lot_; mÄ“ns, _mind_; ars, _art_; gÄ“ns, _tribe_; and some others.

_B. Neuter Ä-Stems._

39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -Ä« in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine Ä-Stems.

Sedile, Animal, Calcar, _seat_; _animal_; _spur_; stem, sedÄ«li-. stem, stem, animÄli-. calcÄri-.

SINGULAR. TERMINATION. _Nom._ sedÄ«le animal calcar -e or wanting _Gen._ sedÄ«lis animÄlis calcÄris -is _Dat._ sedÄ«lÄ« animÄlÄ« calcÄrÄ« -Ä« _Acc._ sedÄ«le animal calcar -e or wanting _Voc._ sedÄ«le animal calcar -e or wanting _Abl._ sedÄ«lÄ« animÄlÄ« calcÄrÄ« -Ä«

PLURAL. _Nom._ sedÄ«lia animÄlia calcÄria -ia _Gen._ sedÄ«lium animÄlium calcÄrium -ium _Dat._ sedÄ«libus animÄlibus calcÄribus -ibus _Acc._ sedÄ«lia animÄlia calcÄria -ia _Voc._ sedÄ«lia animÄlia calcÄria -ia _Abl._ sedÄ«libus animÄlibus calcÄribus -ibus

1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e.

2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e; as, SÅracte, _Mt. Soracte_; so also sometimes mare, sea.

III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of _Ä_-Stems.

40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted themselves to the inflection of Ä-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -Ä«s in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singular, or -Ä« in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class:--

CaedÄ“s, f., Arx, f., Linter, f., _slaughter_; _citadel_; _skiff_; stem, caed-. stem, arc-. stem, lintr-.

SINGULAR. _Nom._ caedÄ“s arx linter _Gen._ caedis arcis lintris _Dat._ caedÄ« arcÄ« lintrÄ« _Acc._ caedem arcem lintrem _Voc._ caedÄ“s arx linter _Abl._ caede arce lintre

PLURAL. _Nom._ caedÄ“s arcÄ“s lintrÄ“s _Gen._ caedium arcium lintrium _Dat._ caedibus arcibus lintribus _Acc._ caedÄ“s, -Ä«s arcÄ“s, -Ä«s lintrÄ“s, -Ä«s _Voc._ caedÄ“s arcÄ“s lintrÄ“s _Abl._ caedibus arcibus lintribus

1. The following classes of nouns belong here:--

a) Nouns in -Ä“s, with Genitive in -is; as, nÅ«bÄ“s, aedÄ“s, clÄdÄ“s, etc.

b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants; as, urbs, mÅns, stirps, lanx.

c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs as, cliÄ“ns, cohors.

d) Åªter, venter; fÅ«r, lÄ«s, mÄs, mÅ«s, nix; and the Plurals faucÄ“s, penÄtÄ“s, OptimÄtÄ“s, SamnitÄ“s, QuirÄ«tÄ“s.

e) Sometimes nouns in -tÄs with Genitive -tÄtis; as, cÄ«vitÄs, aetÄs. CÄ«vitÄs usually has cÄ«vitÄtium.

IV. Stems in _-Ä«_, _-Å«_, and Diphthongs.

41. Vis, f., SÅ«s, c., BÅs, c., ox, Juppiter, m., _force_; _swine_; _cow_; _Jupiter_; stem, vÄ«-. stem, sÅ«-. stem, bou-. stem, Jou-.

SINGULAR. _Nom._ vÄ«s sÅ«s bÅs Juppiter _Gen._ ---- suis bovis Jovis _Dat._ ---- suÄ« bovÄ« JovÄ« _Acc._ vim suem bovem Jovem _Voc._ vÄ«s sÅ«s bÅs Juppiter _Abl._ vÄ« sue bove Jove

PLURAL. _Nom._ vÄ«rÄ“s suÄ“s bovÄ“s _Gen._ vÄ«rium suum bovum, boum _Dat._ vÄ«ribus suibus, subus bÅbus, bÅ«bus _Acc._ vÄ«rÄ“s suÄ“s bovÄ“s _Voc._ vÄ«rÄ“s suÄ“s bovÄ“s _Abl._ vÄ«ribus suibus, subus bÅbus, bÅ«bus

1. Notice that the oblique cases of sÅ«s have Å in the root syllable.

2. GrÅ«s is declined like sÅ«s, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus.

3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-Ä«, etc.

NÄvis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the Ä-stems (Â§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -Ä«.

V. Irregular Nouns.

42. Senex, m., CarÅ, f., Os, n., old man. flesh. bone.

SINGULAR. _Nom._ senex carÅ os _Gen._ senis carnis ossis _Dat._ senÄ« carnÄ« ossÄ« _Acc._ senem carnem os _Voc._ senex carÅ os _Abl._ sene carne osse

PLURAL. _Nom._ senÄ“s carnÄ“s ossa _Gen._ senum carnium ossium _Dat._ senibus carnibus ossibus _Acc._ senÄ“s carnÄ“s ossa _Voc._ senÄ“s carnÄ“s ossa _Abl._ senibus carnibus ossibus

1. Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-.

2. Supellex, supellectilis, f., furniture, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both -Ä« and -e.

3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems,--jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris.

4. Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis.

General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.

43. 1. Nouns in -Å, -or, -Ås, -er, -Ä•s are Masculine.

2. Nouns in -Äs, -Ä“s, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -dÅ, -gÅ (Genitive -inis); -iÅ (abstract and collective), -Å«s (Genitive -Ätis or -Å«dis) are Feminine.

3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -o, -l, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -Ås are Neuter.

Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.

44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.

1. Nouns in -Å.

a. Feminine: carÅ, flesh.

2. Nouns in -or.

a. Feminine: arbor, tree.

b. Neuter: aequor, _sea_; cor, _heart_; marmor, marble.

3. Nouns in -Ås.

a. Feminine: dÅs, dowry.

b. Neuter: Ås (Åris), mouth.

4. Nouns in -er.

a. Feminine: linter, skiff.

b. Neuter: cadÄver, _corpse_; iter, _way_; tÅ«ber, _tumor_; Å«ber, udder. Also botanical names in -er; as, acer, maple.

5. Nouns in -Ä•s.

a. Feminine: seges, crop.

45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines.

1. Nouns in -Äs.

a. Masculine: vÄs, bondsman.

b. Neuter: vÄs, vessel.

2. Nouns in -Ä“s.

a. Masculine: ariÄ“s, _ram_; pariÄ“s, _wall_; pÄ“s, foot.

3. Nouns in -is.

a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, _river_; Ä«gnis, _fire_; pÄnis, _bread_; sanguis, _blood_; unguis, nail.

Also--

axis, axle. piscis, fish. collis, hill. postis, post. fascis, bundle. pulvis, dust. lapis, stone. orbis, circle. mÄ“nsis, month. sentis, brier.

4. Nouns in -x.

a. Masculine: apex, _peak_; cÅdex, _tree-trunk_; grex, _flock_; imbrex, _tile_; pollex, _thumb_; vertex, _summit_; calix, cup.

5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.

a. Masculine: dÄ“ns, _tooth_; fÅns, _fountain_; mÅns, _mountain_; pÅns, bridge.

6. Nouns in -dÅ.

a. Masculine: cardÅ, _hinge_; ÅrdÅ, order.

46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.

1. Nouns in -l.

a. Masculine: sÅl, _sun_; sÄl, salt.

2. Nouns in -n.

a. Masculine: pecten, comb.

3. Nouns in -ur.

a. Masculine: vultur, vulture.

4. Nouns in -Ås.

a. Masculine: lepus, hare.

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.

47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these:--

1. The ending -Äƒ in the Accusative Singular; as, aetherÄƒ, _aether_; SalamÄ«nÄƒ, Salamis.

2. The ending -Ä•s in the Nominative Plural; as, PhrygÄ•s, Phrygians.

3. The ending -Äƒs in the Accusative Plural; as, PhrygÄƒs, Phrygians.

4. Proper names in -Äs (Genitive -antis) have -Ä in the Vocative Singular; as, AtlÄs (Atlantis), Vocative AtlÄ, Atlas.

5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -Ä«s instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural; as, poÄ“matÄ«s, poems.

6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension; as, OrpheÄ«, OrpheÅ, etc.

7. Proper names in -Ä“s, like PericlÄ“s, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -Ä«, as, Periclis or PericlÄ«.

8. Feminine proper names in -Å have -Å«s in the Genitive, but -Å in the other oblique cases; as,--

_Nom._ DidÅ _Acc._ DidÅ _Gen._ DidÅ«s _Voc._ DidÅ _Dat._ DidÅ _Abl._ DidÅ

9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.

* * * * *

FOURTH DECLENSION.

_Å_-Stems.

48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Masculine, and -Å« Neuter. They are declined as follows:--

FrÅ«ctus, m., fruit. CornÅ«, n., horn. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ frÅ«ctus frÅ«ctÅ«s cornÅ« cornua _Gen._ frÅ«ctÅ«s frÅ«ctuum cornÅ«s cornuum _Dat._ frÅ«ctuÄ« frÅ«ctibus cornÅ« cornibus _Acc._ frÅ«ctum frÅ«ctÅ«s cornÅ« cornua _Voc._ frÅ«ctus frÅ«ctÅ«s cornÅ« cornua _Abl._ frÅ«ctÅ« frÅ«ctibus cornÅ« cornibus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.

49. 1. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -Ä«, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senÄtÄ«, ÅrnÄtÄ«. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence.

2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -Å« in the Dative Singular, instead of -uÄ«; as, frÅ«ctÅ« (for frÅ«ctuÄ«).

3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artÅ«s (Plural), _limbs_; tribus, _tribe_; and in dis-syllables in -cus; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus.

4. Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second:--

domÄ« (locative), _at home_; domÅ, _from home_; domum, homewards, _to one's home_; domÅs, homewards, to their (etc.) homes 5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are: cornÅ«, _horn_; genÅ«, _knee_; and verÅ«, spit.

Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.

50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, _needle_; domus, _house_; manus, _hand_; porticus, _colonnade_; tribus, _tribe_; ÄªdÅ«s (Plural), _Ides_; also names of trees (Â§ 15, 2).

* * * * *

FIFTH DECLENSION.

Ä“-Stems.

51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -Ä“s, and are declined as follows:--

DiÄ“s, m., day. RÄ“s, f., thing. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Nom._ diÄ“s diÄ“s rÄ“s rÄ“s _Gen._ diÄ“Ä« diÄ“rum rÄ•Ä« rÄ“rum _Dat._ diÄ“Ä« diÄ“bus rÄ•Ä« rÄ“bus _Acc._ diem diÄ“s rem rÄ“s _Voc._ diÄ“s diÄ“s rÄ“s rÄ“s _Abl._ diÄ“ diÄ“bus rÄ“ rÄ“bus

Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.

52. 1. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -Ä•Ä«, instead of -Ä“Ä«, when a consonant precedes; as, spÄ•Ä«, rÄ•Ä«, fidÄ•Ä«.

2. A Genitive ending -Ä« (for -Ä•Ä«) is found in plÄ“bÄ« (from plÄ“bÄ“s = plÄ“bs) in the expressions tribÅ«nus plÄ“bÄ«, tribune of the people, and plÄ“bÄ« scÄ«tum, _decree of the people_; sometimes also in other words.

3. A Genitive and Dative form in -Ä“ sometimes occurs; as, aciÄ“.

4. With the exception of diÄ“s and rÄ“s, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But aciÄ“s, seriÄ“s, speciÄ“s, spÄ“s, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural.

Gender in the Fifth Declension.

53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except diÄ“s, day, and merÄ«diÄ“s, _mid-day_. But diÄ“s is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an appointed day.

* * * * *

DEFECTIVE NOUNS.

54. Here belong--

1. Nouns used in the Singular only.

2. Nouns used in the Plural only.

3. Nouns used only in certain cases.

4. Indeclinable Nouns.

Nouns used in the Singular only.

55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus:--

1. Proper names; as, CicerÅ, _Cicero_; Italia, Italy.

2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, _copper_; lac, milk.

3. Abstract nouns; as, ignÅrantia, _ignorance_; bonitÄs, goodness.

4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus:--

a) Proper names,--to denote different members of a family, or specimens of a type; as, CicerÅnÄ“s, _the Ciceros_; CatÅnÄ“s, men like Cato.

b) Names of materials,--to denote objects made of the material, or different kinds of the substance; as, aera, bronzes (i.e. bronze figures); ligna, woods.

c) Abstract nouns,--to denote instances of the quality; as, ignÅrantiae, cases of ignorance.

Nouns used in the Plural only.

56. Here belong--

1. Many geographical names; as, ThÄ“bae, _Thebes_; Leuctra, _Leuctra_; PompejÄ«, Pompeii.

2. Many names of festivals; as, MegalÄ“sia, the Megalesian festival.

3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important:--

angustiae, narrow pass. mÄnÄ“s, _spirits of the arma, weapons. dead_. dÄ“liciae, delight. moenia, city walls. dÄ«vitiae, riches. minae, threats. ÄªdÅ«s, Ides. nÅ«ptiae, marriage. indÅ«tiae, truce. posterÄ«, descendants. Ä«nsidiae, ambush. reliquiae, remainder. majÅrÄ“s, ancestors. tenebrae, darkness. verbera, blows.

Also in classical prose regularly--

cervÄ«cÄ“s, neck. nÄrÄ“s, nose. fidÄ“s, lyre. vÄ«scerÄ, viscera.

Nouns used only in Certain Cases.

57. 1. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular as, jussÅ«, _by the order_; injussÅ«, _without the order_; nÄtÅ«, by birth.

2. Used in Two Cases.

a. Fors (_chance_), Nom. Sing.; forte, Abl. Sing.

b. Spontis (_free-will_), Gen. Sing.; sponte, Abl. Sing.

3. Used in Three Cases. NÄ“mÅ, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nÄ“minÄ« and the Acc. nÄ“minem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nÅ«llus; viz. nÅ«llÄ«us and nÅ«llÅ.

4. Impetus has the Nom., Acc., and Abl. Sing., and the Nom. and Acc. Plu.; viz. impetus, impetum, impetÅ«, impetÅ«s.

5. a. PrecÄ«, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing.

b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.

6. Opis, dapis, and frÅ«gis,--all lack the Nom. Sing.

7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu.: as, cor, lÅ«x, sÅl, aes, Ås (Åris), rÅ«s, sÄl, tÅ«s.

Indeclinable Nouns.

58. Here belong--

fÄs, n., right. nefÄs, n., impiety. Ä«nstar, n., likeness. nihil, n., nothing. mÄne, n., morning. secus, n., sex.

1. With the exception of mÄne (which may serve also as Ablative, _in the morning_), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.

Heteroclites.

59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus:--

1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another; as,--

vÄs, vÄsis (_vessel_); Plu., vÄsa, vÄsorÅum, vÄsÄ«s, etc. jÅ«gerum, jÅ«gerÄ« (_acre_); Plu., jÅ«gera, jÅ«gerum, jÅ«geribus, etc.

2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus:--

a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Acc. of the Fifth; as, mÄteriÄ“s, mÄteriem, material, as well as mÄteria, mÄteriam.

b) FamÄ“s, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. famÄ“ of the Fifth.

c) RequiÄ“s, requiÄ“tis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Acc. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requiÄ“tem.

d) Besides plÄ“bs, plÄ“bis, common people, of the Third Declension, we find plÄ“bÄ“s, plÄ“bÄ•Ä« (also plÄ“bÄ«, see Â§ 52, 2), of the Fifth.

Heterogeneous Nouns.

60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus:--

1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms,--one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, _shield_; carrus, carrum, cart.

2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in the Plural; as,--

SINGULAR. PLURAL. balneum, n., _bath_; balneae, f., _bath-house_. epulum, n., _feast_; epulae, f., feast. frÄ“num, n., _bridle_; frÄ“nÄ«, m.(rarely frÄ“na, n.), bridle. jocus, m., _jest_; joca, n. (also jocÄ«, m.), jests. locus, m., _place_; loca, n., _places_; locÄ«, m., passages or topics in an author. rÄstrum, n., _rake_; rÄstrÄ«, m.; rÄstra, n., rakes.

a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the first two examples above.

Plurals with Change of Meaning.

61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural:--

SINGULAR. PLURAL. aedÄ“s, _temple_; aedÄ“s, house. auxilium, _help_; auxilia, auxiliary troops. carcer, _prison_; carcerÄ“s, _stalls for racing-chariot_. castrum, _fort_; castra, camp. cÅpia, _abundance_; cÅpiae, troops, resources. fÄ«nis, _end_; fÄ«nÄ“s, borders, territory. fortÅ«na, _fortune_; fortÅ«nae, possessions, wealth. grÄtia, favor, grÄtiae, thanks. _gratitude_; impedÄ«mentum, impedÄ«menta, baggage. _hindrance_; littera, letter (of the litterae, _epistle; literature_. alphabet); mÅs, habit, _custom_; mÅrÄ“s, character. opera, help, _service_; operae, laborers. (ops) opis, _help_; opÄ“s, resources. pars, _part_; partÄ“s, _party_; _rÃ´le_. sÄl, _salt_; sÄƒlÄ“s, wit.

* * * * *

B. ADJECTIVES.

62. Adjectives denote quality. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes,--

1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.

63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus:--

Bonus, good.

SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonÄ« bonae bonÄ« _Dat._ bonÅ bonae bonÅ _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Voc._ bone bona bonum _Abl._ bonÅ bonÄ bonÅ

PLURAL. _Nom._ bonÄ« bonae bona _Gen._ bonÅrum bonÄrum bonÅrum _Dat._ bonÄ«s bonÄ«s bonÄ«s _Acc._ bonÅs bonÄs bona _Voc._ bonÄ« bonae bona _Abl._ bonÄ«s bonÄ«s bonÄ«s

1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -iÄ« (not in -Ä« as in case of Nouns; see Â§ 25, 1; 2). So also the Voc. Sing. of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in Ä«. Thus eximius forms Gen. eximiÄ«; Voc. eximie.

2. Distributives (see Â§ 78, 1, c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc. and Neut. in -um instead of -Årum (compare Â§ 25, 6); as, dÄ“num centÄ“num; but always singulÅrum.

64. Masculine like puer:--

Tener, tender.

SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE NEUTER. _Nom._ tener tenera tenerum _Gen._ tenerÄ« tenerae tenerÄ« _Dat._ tenerÅ tenerae tenerÅ _Acc._ tenerum teneram tenerum _Voc._ tener tenera tenerum _Abl._ tenerÅ tenerÄ tenerÅ

PLURAL. _Nom._ tenerÄ« tenerae tenera _Gen._ tenerÅrum tenerÄrum tenerÅrum _Dat._ tenerÄ«s tenerÄ«s tenerÄ«s _Acc._ tenerÅs tenerÄs tenera _Voc._ tenerÄ« tenerae tenera _Abl._ tenerÄ«s tenerÄ«s tenerÄ«s

65. Masculine like ager:--

Sacer, sacred.

SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ sacer sacra sacrum _Gen._ sacrÄ« sacrae sacrÄ« _Dat._ sacrÅ sacrae sacrÅ _Acc._ sacrum sacram sacrum _Voc._ sacer sacra sacrum _Abl._ sacrÅ sacrÄ sacrÅ

PLURAL. _Nom._ sacrÄ« sacrae sacra _Gen._ sacrÅrum sacrÄrum sacrÅrum _Dat._ sacrÄ«s sacrÄ«s sacrÄ«s _Acc._ sacrÅs sacrÄs sacra _Voc._ sacrÄ« sacrae sacra _Abl._ sacrÄ«s sacrÄ«s sacrÄ«s

1. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following however, are declined like tener: asper, _rough_; lacer, _torn_; lÄ«ber, _free_; miser, _wretched_; prÅsper, _prosperous_; compounds in -fer and -ger; sometimes dexter, right.

2. Satur, full, is declined: satur, satura, saturum.

Nine Irregular Adjectives.

66. Here belong--

alius, _another_; alter, _the other_; Å«llus, _any_; nÅ«llus, _none_; uter, _which?_ (of two); neuter, _neither_; sÅlus, _alone_; tÅtus, _whole_; Å«nus, one, alone.

They are declined as follows:--

SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ alius alia aliud _Gen._ alterÄus alterÄus alterÄus[15] _Dat._ aliÄ« aliÄ« aliÄ« _Acc._ alium aliam aliud _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ aliÅ aliÄ aliÅ

_Nom._ alter altera alterum _Gen._ alterÄus alterÄus alterÄus _Dat._ alterÄ« alterÄ«[16] alterÄ« _Acc._ alterum alteram alterum _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ alterÅ alterÄ alterÅ

_Nom._ uter utra utrum _Gen._ utrÄ«us utrÄ«us utrÄ«us _Dat._ utrÄ« utrÄ« utrÄ« _Acc._ utrum utram utrum _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ utrÅ utrÄ utrÅ

_Nom._ tÅtus tÅta tÅtum _Gen._ tÅtÄ«us tÅtÄ«us tÅtÄ«us _Dat._ tÅtÄ« tÅtÄ« tÅtÄ« _Acc._ tÅtum tÅtam tÅtum _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ tÅtÅ tÅtÄ tÅtÅ

1. All these words lack the Vocative. The Plural is regular.

2. Neuter is declined like uter.

* * * * *

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.

67. These fall into three classes,--

1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular,--one for each gender.

2. Adjectives of two terminations.

3. Adjectives of one termination.

a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in Â§ 70, 1, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of Ä-stems; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -Ä«, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -Ä«s (as well as -Ä“s) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters.

Adjectives of Three Terminations.

68. These are declined as follows:--

Ä€cer, sharp.

SINGULAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ Äcer Äcris Äcre _Gen._ Äcris Äcris Äcris _Dat._ ÄcrÄ« ÄcrÄ« ÄcrÄ« _Acc._ Äcrem Äcrem Äcre _Voc._ Äcer Äcris Äcre _Abl._ ÄcrÄ« ÄcrÄ« ÄcrÄ«

PLURAL. _Nom._ ÄcrÄ“s ÄcrÄ“s Äcria _Gen._ Äcrium Äcrium Äcrium Dat, Äcribus Äcribus Äcribus _Acc._ ÄcrÄ“s, -Ä«s ÄcrÄ“s, -Ä«s Äcria _Voc._ ÄcrÄ“s ÄcrÄ“s Äcria _Abl._ Äcribus Äcribus Äcribus

1. Like Äcer are declined alacer, _lively_; campester, _level_; celeber, _famous_; equester, _equestrian_; palÅ«ster, _marshy_; pedester, _pedestrian_; puter, _rotten_; salÅ«ber, _wholesome_; silvester, _woody_; terrester, _terrestrial_; volucer, _winged_; also names of months in -ber, as September.

2. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural.

3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Feminine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salÅ«bris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry.

Adjectives of Two Terminations.

69. These are declined as follows:--

Fortis, _strong._ Fortior, _stronger._ SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. _Nom._ fortis forte fortior fortius _Gen._ fortis fortis fortiÅris fortiÅris _Dat._ fortÄ« fortÄ« fortiÅrÄ« fortiÅrÄ« _Acc._ fortem forte fortiÅrem fortius _Voc._ fortis forte fortior fortius _Abl._ fortÄ« fortÄ« fortiÅre fortiÅre

PLURAL. _Nom._ fortÄ“s fortia fortiÅrÄ“s fortiÅra _Gen._ fortium fortium fortiÅrum fortiÅrum _Dat._ fortibus fortibus fortiÅribus fortiÅribus _Acc._ fortÄ“s, -Ä«s fortia fortiÅrÄ“s, -Ä«s fortiÅra _Voc._ fortÄ“s fortia fortiÅrÄ“s fortiÅra _Abl._ fortibus fortibus fortiÅribus fortiÅribus

1. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The Acc. Plu. in -Ä«s is rare.

Adjectives of One Termination.

70. FÄ“lÄ«x, _happy._. PrÅ«dÄ“ns, _prudent._

SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. _Nom._ fÄ“lÄ«x fÄ“lÄ«x prÅ«dÄ“ns prÅ«dÄ“ns _Gen._ fÄ“lÄ«cÄ«s fÄ“lÄ«cis prÅ«dentis prÅ«dentis _Dat._ fÄ“lÄ«cÄ« fÄ“lÄ«cÄ« prÅ«dentÄ« prÅ«dentÄ« _Acc._ fÄ“lÄ«cem fÄ“lÄ«x prÅ«dentem prÅ«dÄ“ns _Voc._ fÄ“lÄ«x fÄ“lÄ«x prÅ«dÄ“ns prÅ«dÄ“ns _Abl._ fÄ“lÄ«cÄ« fÄ“lÄ«cÄ« prÅ«dentÄ« prÅ«dentÄ«

PLURAL. _Nom._ fÄ“lÄ«cÄ“s fÄ“lÄ«cia prÅ«dentÄ“s prÅ«dentia _Gen._ fÄ“lÄ«cium fÄ“lÄ«cium prÅ«dentium prÅ«dentium _Dat._ fÄ“lÄ«cibus fÄ“lÄ«cibus prÅ«dentibus prÅ«dentibus _Acc._ fÄ“lÄ«cÄ“s, -Ä«s fÄ“lÄ«cia prÅ«dentÄ“s, -Ä«s prÅ«dentia _Voc._ fÄ“lÄ«cÄ“s fÄ“lÄ«cia prÅ«dentÄ“s prÅ«dentia _Abl._ fÄ“lÄ«cibus fÄ“lÄ«cibus prÅ«dentibus prÅ«dentibus

Vetus, old. PlÅ«s, more.

SINGULAR. M. AND F. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. _Nom._ vetus vetus ---- plÅ«s _Gen._ veteris veteris ---- plÅ«ris _Dat._ veterÄ« veterÄ« ---- ---- _Acc._ veterem vetus ---- plÅ«s _Voc._ vetus vetus ---- ---- _Abl._ vetere vetere ---- plÅ«re

PLURAL. _Nom._ veterÄ“s vetera plÅ«rÄ“s plÅ«ra _Gen._ veterum veterum plÅ«rium plÅ«rium _Dat._ veteribus veteribus plÅ«ribus plÅ«ribus _Acc._ veterÄ“s vetera plÅ«rÄ“s, -Ä«s plÅ«ra _Voc._ veterÄ“s vetera ---- ---- _Abl._ veteribus veteribus plÅ«ribus plÅ«ribus

1. It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant-Stem; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -Ä“s only. In the same way are declined compos, _controlling_; dÄ«ves, _rich_; particeps, _sharing_; pauper, _poor_; prÄ«nceps, _chief_; sÅspes, _safe_; superstes, surviving. Yet dÄ«ves always has Neut. Plu. dÄ«tia.

2. Inops, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular inopÄ«, memorÄ«, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum.

3. Participles in -Äns and -Ä“ns follow the declension of Ä«-stems. But they do not have -Ä« the Ablative, except when employed as adjectives; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e; as,--

Ä sapientÄ« virÅ, _by a wise man_; but Ä sapiente, _by a philosopher._ TarquiniÅ rÄ“gnante, _under the reign of Tarquin._

4. PlÅ«s, in the Singular, is always a noun.

5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives,--

a) usually retain the adjective declension; as,--

aequÄlis, contemporary, Abl. aequÄlÄ«. cÅnsulÄris, _ex-consul_, Abl. cÅnsulÄrÄ«

So names of Months; as, AprÄ«lÄ«, _April_; DecembrÄ«, December.

b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular; as, Celere, Celer; JuvenÄle, Juvenal.

c) Patrials in -Äs, -Ätis and -Ä«s, -Ä«tis, when designating places regularly have -Ä«; as, in ArpÄ«nÄtÄ«, on the estate at Arpinum, yet -e, when used of persons; as, ab ArpÄ«nÄte, by an Arpinatian.

6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frÅ«gÄ«, _frugal_; nÄ“quam, worthless.

7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form the Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venientum, of those coming.

* * * * *

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

71. 1. There are three degrees of Comparison,--the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel; as,--

altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, highest, very high. fortis, brave, fortior, fortissimus. fÄ“lÄ«x, fortunate, fÄ“lÄ«cior, fÄ“lÄ«cissimus.

So also Participles, when used as Adjectives; as,--

doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus. egÄ“ns, needy, egentior, egentissimus.

3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus:--

asper, rough, asperior, asperrimus. pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcherrimus. Äcer, sharp, Äcrior, Äcerrimus. celer, swift, celerior, celerrimus.

a. Notice mÄtÅ«rus, mÄtÅ«rior, mÄtÅ«rissimus or mÄtÅ«rrimus.

4. Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative is regular. Thus:--

facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus. difficilis, diffcult, difficilior, difficillimus. similis, like, similior, simillimus. dissimilis, unlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus. humilis, low, humilior, humillimus.

5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dÄ«cÄ“ns, -ficÄ“ns, -volÄ“ns. Thus:--

maledicus, slanderous, maledÄ«centior, maledÄ«centissimus. magnificus, magnificent, magnificentior, magnificentissimus. benevolus, kindly, benevolentior, benevolentissimus.

a. Positives in -dÄ«cÄ“ns and -volÄ“ns occur in early Latin; as maledÄ«cÄ“ns, benevolÄ“ns.

6. DÄ«ves has the Comparative dÄ«vitior or dÄ«tior; Superlative dÄ«vitissimus or dÄ«tissimus.

Irregular Comparison.

72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison; viz.--

bonus, good, melior, optimus. malus, bad, pejor, pessimus. parvus, small, minor, minimus. magnus, large, major, maximus. multus, much, plÅ«s, plÅ«rimus, frÅ«gÄ«, thrifty, frÅ«gÄlior, frÅ«gÄlissimus, nÄ“quam, worthless, nÄ“quior, nÄ“quissimus.

Defective Comparison.

73. 1. Positive lacking entirely,--

(Cf. prae, _in front prior, former, prÄ«mus, first of_.) (Cf. citrÄ, _this side citerior, _on this citimus, near. of_.) side_, (Cf. ultrÄ, beyond.) ulterior, farther, ultimus, farthest. (Cf. intrÄ, within.) interior, inner, intimus, inmost (Cf. prope, near.) propior, nearer, proximus, nearest. (Cf. dÄ“, down.) dÄ“terior, inferior, dÄ“terrimus, worst. (Cf. archaic potis, potior, preferable, potissimus, chiefest possible.)

2. Positive occurring only in special cases,--

posterÅ diÄ“, annÅ, posterior, later, postrÄ“mus, latest, etc. _the following last. day_, etc., postumus, _late-born_, posterÄ«, posthumous. descendants, exteri, exterior, outer extrÄ“mus, extimus, foreigners, outermost. nÄtiÅnÄ“s exterae, foreign nations, inferÄ«, _gods of the Ä«nferior, lower, Ä«nfimus, Ä«mus, lower world_, lowest. Mare Inferum, Mediterranean Sea, superÄ«, _gods superior, higher, suprÄ“mus, last. above_, summus, highest. Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea,

3. Comparative lacking.

vetus, old, ----[17] veterrimus. fÄ«dus, faithful, ---- fÄ«dissimus. novus, new, ----[18] novissimus,[19] last. sacer, sacred, ---- sacerrimus. falsus, false, ---- falsissimus.

Also in some other words less frequently used.

4. Superlative lacking.

alacer, lively, alacrior, ---- ingÄ“ns, great, ingentior, ---- salÅ«tÄris, wholesome, salÅ«tÄrior, ---- juvenis, young, jÅ«nior, ----[20] senex, old, senior. ----[21]

a. The Superlative is lacking also in many adjectives in -Älis, -Ä«lis, -Älis, -bilis, and in a few others.

Comparison by Magis and _MaximÄ“_.

74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational comparison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis (_more_) and maximÄ“ (_most_). Here belong--

1. Many adjectives ending in -Älis, -Äris, -idus, -Ä«lis, -icus, imus, Ä«nus, -Årus.

2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idÅneus, _adapted_; arduus, _steep_; necessÄrius, necessary.

a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.

Adjectives not admitting Comparison.

75. Here belong--

1. Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do not admit of comparison; as, hodiernus, _of to-day_; annuus, _annual_; mortÄlis, mortal.

2. Some special words; as, mÄ«rus, gnÄrus, merus; and a few others.

* * * * *

FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjectives, and depend upon them for their comparison.

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -Ä« of the Genitive Singular to -Ä“; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter; as,--

cÄrus, cÄrÄ“, _dearly_; pulcher, pulchrÄ“, _beautifully_; Äcer, Äcriter, _fiercely_; levis, leviter, lightly.

a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb; as,--

sapiÄ“ns, sapienter, _wisely_; sollers, sollerter, skillfully.

Note audÄx, audÄcter, boldly.

2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accusative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -Ä« of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -Ä“. Thus--

(cÄrus) cÄrÄ“, dearly, cÄrius, cÄrissimÄ“. (pulcher) pulchrÄ“, beautifully, pulchrius, pulcherrimÄ“. (Äcer) Äcriter, fiercely, Äcrius, ÄcerrimÄ“. (levis) leviter, lightly, levius, levissimÄ“. (sapiÄ“ns) sapienter, wisely, sapientius, sapientissimÄ“. (audÄx) audÄcter, boldly, audÄcius, audÄcissimÄ“.

Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.

77. 1., well, melius, optimÄ“. malÄ•, ill, pejus, pessimÄ“. magnopere, greatly, magis, maximÄ“. multum, much, plÅ«s, plÅ«rimum. nÅn multum, little, minus, minimÄ“. parum, diÅ«, long, diÅ«tius, diÅ«tissimÄ“. nÄ“quiter, worthlessly, nÄ“quius, nÄ“quissimÄ“. saepe, often, saepius, saepissimÄ“. mÄtÅ«rÄ“, betimes, mÄtÅ«rius, mÄtÅ«rrimÄ“. mÄtÅ«rissimÄ“. prope, near, propius, proximÄ“. nÅ«per, recently, ---- nÅ«perrimÄ“. ---- potius, rather, potissimum, especially. ---- prius, previously, prÄ«mum, first. before, secus, otherwise, sÄ“tius, less.

2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -Å, instead of -Ä“; as,--

crÄ“brÅ, _frequently_; falsÅ, _falsely_; continuÅ, subitÅ, _suddenly_; _immediately_; rÄrÅ, rarely, and a few others.

a. cito, quickly, has -Å.

3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb; as,--

multum, _much_; paulum, facile, _little_; easily.

4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter; as,--

fÄ«rmus, fÄ«rmiter, _firmly_; hÅ«mÄnus, hÅ«mÄniter, _humanly_; largus, largiter, _copiously_; alius, aliter, otherwise.

a. violentus has violenter.

5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim; as, antÄ«quitus, _anciently_; paulÄtim, gradually.

* * * * *

NUMERALS.

78. Numerals may be divided into--

I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising--

a. _Cardinals_; as, Å«nus, _one_; duo, _two_; etc.

b. _Ordinals_; as, prÄ«mus, _first_; secundus, _second_; etc.

c. _Distributives_; as, singulÄ«, _one by one_; bÄ«nÄ«, _two by two_; etc.

II. Numeral Adverbs; as, semel, _once_; bis, _twice_; etc.

79. TABLE OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

CARDINALS. ORDINALS. 1. Å«nus, Å«na, Å«num prÄ«mus, first 2. duo, duae, duo secundus, second 3. trÄ“s, tria tertius, third 4. quattuor quÄrtus, fourth 5. quÄ«nque quÄ«ntus, fifth 6. sex sextus 7. septem septimus 8. octo octÄvus 9. novem nÅnus 10. decem decimus 11. Å«ndecim Å«ndecimus 12. duodecim duodecimus 13. tredecim tertius decimus 14. quattuordecim quÄrtus decimus 15. quÄ«ndecim quÄ«ntus decimus 16. sÄ“decim, sextus decimus sexdecim 17. septendecim septimus decimus 18. duodÄ“vÄ«gintÄ« duodÄ“vÄ«cÄ“simus 19. Å«ndÄ“vÄ«gintÄ« Å«ndÄ“vÄ«cÄ“simus 20. vÄ«gintÄ« vÄ«cÄ“simus 21. vÄ«gintÄ« Å«nus, vÄ«cÄ“simus prÄ«mus, Å«nus et vÄ«gintÄ« Å«nus et vÄ«cÄ“simus 22. vÄ«gintÄ« duo, vÄ«cÄ“simus secundus, duo et vÄ«gintÄ« alter et vÄ«cÄ“simus 30. trÄ«gintÄ trÄ«cÄ“simus 40. quadrÄgintÄ quadrÄgÄ“simus 50. quÄ«nquÄgintÄ quÄ«nquÄgÄ“simus 60. sexÄgintÄ sexÄgÄ“simus 70. septuÄgintÄ septuÄgÄ“simus 80. octÅgintÄ octÅgÄ“simus 90. nÅnÄgintÄ nÅnÄgÄ“simus 100. centum centÄ“simus 101. centum Å«nus, centÄ“simus prÄ«mus, centum et Å«nus centÄ“simus et prÄ«mus 200. ducentÄ«, -ae, -a ducentÄ“simus 300. trecentÄ« trecentÄ“simus 400. quadringentÄ« quadringentÄ“simus 500. quÄ«ngentÄ« quÄ«ngentÄ“simus 600. sescentÄ« sescentÄ“simus 700. septingentÄ« septingentÄ“simus 800. octingentÄ« octingentÄ“simus 900. nÅngentÄ« nÅngentÄ“simus 1,000. mÄ«lle mÄ«llÄ“simus 2,000. duo mÄ«lia bis mÄ«llÄ“simus 100,000. centum mÄ«lia centiÄ“s mÄ«llÄ“simus 1,000,000. deciÄ“s centÄ“na mÄ«lia deciÄ“s centiÄ“s mÄ«llÄ“simus

DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS. 1. singuli, one by one semel, once 2. bÄ«nÄ«, two by two bis 3. ternÄ« (trÄ«nÄ«) ter 4. quaternÄ« quater 5. quÄ«nÄ« quÄ«nquiÄ“s 6. sÄ“nÄ« sexiÄ“s 7. septÄ“nÄ« septiÄ“s 8. octÅnÄ« octiÄ“s 9. novÄ“nÄ« noviÄ“s 10. dÄ“nÄ« deciÄ“s 11. Å«ndÄ“nÄ« Å«ndeciÄ“s 12. duodÄ“nÄ« duodeciÄ“s 13. ternÄ« denÄ« terdeciÄ“s 14. quaternÄ« denÄ« quaterdeciÄ“s 15. quÄ«nÄ« dÄ“nÄ« quÄ«nquiÄ“s deciÄ“s 16. sÄ“nÄ« dÄ“nÄ« sexiÄ“s deciÄ“s 17. septÄ“nÄ« dÄ“nÄ« septiÄ“s deciÄ“s 18. duodÄ“vicÄ“nÄ« octiÄ“s deciÄ“s 19. Å«ndÄ“vÄ«cÄ“nÄ« noviÄ“s deciÄ“s 20. vÄ«cÄ“nÄ« vÄ«ciÄ“s 21. vÄ«cÄ“nÄ« singulÄ«, vÄ«ciÄ“s semel singulÄ« et vÄ«cÄ“nÄ« 22. vÄ«cÄ“ni bÄ«nÄ«, vÄ«ciÄ“s bis bÄ«nÄ« et vÄ«cÄ“nÄ« 30. trÄ«cÄ“nÄ« trÄ«ciÄ“s 40. quadrÄgÄ“nÄ« quadrÄgiÄ“s 50. quÄ«nquÄgÄ“nÄ« quÄ«nquÄgiÄ“s 60. sexÄgÄ“nÄ« sexÄgiÄ“s 70. septuÄgÄ“nÄ« septuÄgiÄ“s 80. octÅgÄ“nÄ« octÅgiÄ“s 90. nÅnÄgÄ“nÄ« nÅnÄgiÄ“s 100. centÄ“nÄ« centiÄ“s 101. centÄ“nÄ« singulÄ«, centiÄ“s semel centÄ“nÄ« et singulÄ« 200. ducÄ“nÄ« ducentiÄ“s 300. trecÄ“nÄ« trecentiÄ“s 400. quadringÄ“nÄ« quadringentiÄ“s 500. quÄ«ngÄ“nÄ« quÄ«ngentiÄ“s 600. sescÄ“nÄ« sescentiÄ“s 700. septingÄ“nÄ« septingentiÄ“s 800. octingÄ“nÄ« octingentiÄ“s 900. nÅngÄ“nÄ« nÅngentiÄ“s 1,000. singula mÄ«lia mÄ«liÄ“s 2,000. bÄ«na mÄ«lia bis mÄ«liÄ“s 100,000. centÄ“na mÄ«lia centiÄ“s mÄ«liÄ“s 1,000,000. deciÄ“s centÄ“na mÄ«lia deciÄ“s centiÄ“s mÄ«liÄ“s

NOTE.-- -Ä“nsimus and -iÄ“ns are often written in the numerals instead of -Ä“simus and -iÄ“s.

Declension of the Cardinals.

80. 1. The declension of Å«nus has already been given under Â§ 66.

2. Duo is declined as follows:--

_Nom._ duo duae duo _Gen._ duÅrum duÄrum duÅrum _Dat._ duÅbus duÄbus duÅbus _Acc._ duÅs, duo duÄs duo _Abl._ duÅbus duÄbus duÅbus

a. So ambÅ, both, except that its final o is long.

3. TrÄ“s is declined,--

_Nom._ trÄ“s tria _Gen._ trium trium _Dat._ tribus tribus _Acc._ trÄ“s (trÄ«s) tria _Abl._ tribus tribus

4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of bonus.

5. MÄ«lle is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable. In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive of the objects enumerated; Â§ 201, 1), and is declined,--

_Nom._ mÄ«lia _Acc._ mÄ«lia _Gen._ mÄ«lium _Voc._ mÄ«lia _Dat._ mÄ«libus _Abl._ mÄ«libus

Thus mÄ«lle hominÄ“s, _a thousand men_; but duo mÄ«lia hominum, two thousand men, literally two thousands of men.

a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction; as, mÄ«lle hominum.

6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.

Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.

81. 1. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used. Thus:--

trÄ«gintÄ sex or sex et trÄ«gintÄ, _thirty-six_.

2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed by subtraction; as,--

duodÄ“vÄ«gintÄ«, eighteen (but also octÅdecim);

Å«ndÄ“quadrÄgintÄ, _thirty-nine_ (but also trÄ«gintÄ novem or novem et trÄ«gintÄ).

3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first; the others follow without et; as,--

centum vÄ«gintÄ« septem, _one hundred and twenty-seven_.

annÅ octingentÄ“simÅ octÅgÄ“simÅ secundÅ, _in the year 882_.

Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit or one of the tens; as,--

centum et septem, _one hundred and seven_;

centum et quadrÄgintÄ, one hundred and forty.

4. The Distributives are used--

a) To denote so much each, _so many apiece_; as,--

bÄ«na talenta eÄ«s dedit, he gave them two talents each.

b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense; as,--

bÄ«nae litterae, two epistles.

But in such cases, Å«nÄ« (not singulÄ«) is regularly employed for one, and trÄ«nÄ« (not ternÄ«) for three; as,--

Å«nae litterae, _one epistle_; trÄ«nae litterae, three epistles.

c) In multiplication; as,--

bis bÄ«na sunt quattuor, twice two are four.

d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals; as,--

bÄ«na hastÄ«lia, two spears.

* * * * *

C. PRONOUNS.

82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something without naming it.

83. There are the following classes of pronouns:--

I. Personal. V. Intensive. II. Reflexive. VI. Relative. III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative. IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite.

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

84. These correspond to the English I, you, he, she, it, etc., and are declined as follows:--

First Person. Second Person. Third Person.

SINGULAR. _Nom._ ego, I tÅ«, thou is, _he_; ea, _she_; id, it _Gen._ meÄ« tuÄ« (For declension see Â§ 87.) _Dat._ mihi[22] tibi[22] _Acc._ mÄ“ tÄ“ _Voc._ ---- tÅ« _Abl._ mÄ“ tÄ“

PLURAL. _Nom._ nÅs, we vÅs, you _Gen._ nostrum, nostrÄ« vestrum, vestrÄ« _Dat._ nÅbÄ«s vÅbÄ«s _Acc._ nÅs vÅs _Voc._ ---- vÅs _Abl._ nÅbÄ«s vÅbÄ«s

1. A Dative Singular mÄ« occurs in poetry.

2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet, _I myself_; tibimet, _to you yourself_; tÅ« has tÅ«te and tÅ«temet (written also tÅ«timet).

3. In early Latin, mÄ“d and tÄ“d occur as Accusative and Ablative forms.

* * * * *

II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand; like myself, yourself, in 'I see myself,' etc. They are declined as follows:--

_First Person._ _Second Person._ _Third Person._ Supplied by oblique Supplied by oblique cases of ego. cases of tÅ«. _Gen._ meÄ«, of myself tuÄ«, of thyself suÄ« _Dat._ mihi, to myself tibi, to thyself sibi[22] _Acc._ mÄ“, myself tÄ“, thyself sÄ“ or sÄ“sÄ“ _Voc._ ---- ---- ---- _Abl._ mÄ“, with myself, tÄ“, with thyself, sÄ“ or sÄ“sÄ“ etc. etc.

1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of himself, herself, itself, or _of themselves_; and so with the other forms.

2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force; as,--

inter sÄ“ pugnant, they fight with each other.

3. In early Latin, sÄ“d occurs as Accusative and Ablative.

* * * * *

III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are--

_First Person._ _Second Person._ meus, -a, -um, _my_; tuus, -a, -um, _thy_; noster, nostra, nostrum, vester, vestra, vestrum, _our_; _your_;

_Third Person._ suus, -a, -um, his, her, its, their.

1. Suus is exclusively Reflexive; as,--

pater lÄ«berÅs suÅs amat, the father loves his children.

Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular of is, viz. ejus; and their by the Genitive Plural, eÅrum, eÄrum.

2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mÄ«.

3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis. This is particularly common in case of suÅ, suÄ; as, suÅpte, suÄpte.

* * * * *

IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

87. These point out an object as here or there, or as previously mentioned. They are--

hÄ«c, this (where I am); iste, that (where you are); ille, that (something distinct from the speaker); is, that (weaker than ille); Ä«dem, the same.

HÄ«c, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons respectively.

HÄ«c, this. SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ hÄ«c haec hÅc hÄ« hae haec _Gen._ hÅ«jus[23] hÅ«jus hÅ«jus hÅrum hÄrum hÅrum _Dat._ huic huic huic hÄ«s hÄ«s hÄ«s _Acc._ hunc hanc hÅc hÅs hÄs haec _Abl._ hÅc hÄc hÅc hÄ«s hÄ«s hÄ«s

Iste, that, _that of yours._ SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ iste ista istud[24] istÄ« istae ista[24] _Gen._ istÄ«us istÄ«us istÄ«us istÅrum istÄrum istÅrum _Dat._ istÄ« istÄ« istÄ« istÄ«s istÄ«s istÄ«s _Acc._ istum istam istud istÅs istÄs ista[24] _Abl._ istÅ istÄ istÅ istÄ«s istÄ«s istÄ«s

Ille (archaic olle), that, that one, he, is declined like iste.[25]

Is, he, this, that. SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. Nom. is ea id eÄ«, iÄ«, eae ea (Ä«) _Gen._ ejus ejus ejus eÅrum eÄrum eÅrum _Dat._ eÄ« eÄ« eÄ« eÄ«s, iÄ«s eÄ«s, iÄ«s eÄ«s, iÄ«s _Acc._ eum eam id eÅs eÄs ea _Abl._ eÅ eÄ eÅ eÄ«s, iÄ«s eÄ«s, iÄ«s eÄ«s, iÄ«s

Äªdem, the same. SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. Nom. Ä«dem eadem idem eÄ«dem, eaedem eadem iÄ«dem _Gen._ ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eÅrundem eÄrundem eÅrundem _Dat._ eÄ«dem eÄ«dem eÄ«dem eÄ«sdem eÄ«sdem eÄ«sdem _Acc._ eundem eandem idem eÅsdem eÄsdem eadem _Abl._ eÅdem eÄdem eÅdem eÄ«sdem eÄ«sdem eÄ«sdem

The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has Ä«dem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. Ä«sdem or iÄ«sdem

* * * * *

V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.

88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corresponds to the English myself, etc., in 'I myself, _he himself._'

SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ ipse ipsa ipsum ipsÄ« ipsae ipsa _Gen._ ipsÄ«us ipsÄ«us ipsÄ«us ipsÅrum ipsÄrum ipsÅrum _Dat._ ipsÄ« ipsÄ« ipsÄ« ipsÄ«s ipsÄ«s ipsÄ«s _Acc._ ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsÅs ipsÄs ipsa _Abl._ ipsÅ ipsÄ ipsÅ ipsÄ«s ipsÄ«s ipsÄ«s

* * * * *

VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

89. The Relative Pronoun is quÄ«, who. It is declined:--

SINGULAR PLURAL. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. _Nom._ quÄ« quae quod quÄ« quae quae _Gen._ cÅ«jus cÅ«jus cÅ«jus quÅrum quÄrum quÅrum _Dat._ cui cui cui quibus[26] quibus quibus _Acc._ quem quam quod quÅs quÄs quae _Abl._ quÅ[27] quÄ[27] quÅ quibus[26] quibus quibus

* * * * *

VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quis, _who?_ (substantive) and quÄ«, _what? what kind of?_ (adjective).

1. Quis, _who_?

SINGULAR. PLURAL. MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER _Nom._ quis quid The rare Plural _Gen._ cÅ«jus cÅ«jus follows the declension _Dat._ cui cui of the Relative Pronoun. _Acc._ quem quid _Abl._ quÅ quÅ

2. QuÄ«, _what? what kind of?_ is declined precisely like the Relative Pronoun; viz. quÄ«, quae, quod, etc.

a. An old Ablative quÄ« occurs, in the sense of _how? why?_

b. QuÄ« is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.

c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes an adjective. But in such cases quis homÅ = _what man?_ whereas quÄ« homÅ = _what sort of man?_

d. Quis and quÄ« may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:--

Substantive: quisnam, _who, pray?_ quidnam, _what, pray?_ Adjective: quÄ«nam, quaenam, quodnam, _of what kind, pray?_

* * * * *

VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

91. These have the general force of some one, any one.

SUBSTANTIVES. ADJECTIVES. M. AND F. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. quis, quid, quÄ«, quae, qua, quod, any one, anything. any. aliquis, aliquid, aliquÄ«, aliqua, aliquod, some one, any. something. quisquam, quidquam, quisquam, quidquam, any one, anything. any (rare) quispiam, quidpiam, quispiam, quaepiam, quodpiam, any one, anything. any. quisque, quidque, quisque, quaeque, quodque, each. each. quÄ«vÄ«s, quaevÄ«s, quidvÄ«s, quÄ«vis, quaevÄ«s, quodvis, quÄ«libet, quaelibet, quidlibet quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet, any one (_anything_) any you wish you wish quÄ«dam, quaedam, quiddam, quÄ«dam, quaedam, quoddam, a certain person, or a certain thing.

1. In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined. Thus: Genitive Singular alicÅ«jus, cÅ«juslibet, etc.

2. Note that aliquÄ« has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Feminine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. QuÄ« has both qua and quae in these same cases.

3. QuÄ«dam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam; Genitive Plural quÅrundam, quÄrundam; the m being assimilated to n before d.

4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliquÄ« substantively.

5. In combination with nÄ“, sÄ«, nisi, num, either quis or quÄ« may stand as a Substantive. Thus: sÄ« quis or sÄ« quÄ«.

6. Ecquis, any one, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms,--substantive, ecquis, ecquid; adjective, ecquÄ«, ecquae and ecqua, ecquod.

7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural.

8. There are two Indefinite Relatives,--quÄ«cumque and quisquis, whoever. QuÄ«cumque declines only the first part; quisquis declines both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quÅquÅ, in common use.

* * * * *

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

92. The following adjectives, also, frequently have pronominal force:--

1. alius, _another;_ alter, _the other;_ uter, _which of two?_ (interr.); neuter, _neither;_ whichever of two (rel.); Å«nus, _one_; nÅ«llus, no one (in oblique cases)

2. The compounds,--

uterque, utraque, utrumque, _each of two;_ utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, _whoever of two;_ uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, _either one you please;_ utervÄ«s, utravÄ«s, utrumvÄ«s, _either one you please;_ alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other.

In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts; as,--

_Nom._ alteruter altera utra alterum utrum _Gen._ alterius utrÄ«us, etc.

* * * * *

CHAPTER II.

--_Conjugation._

93. A Verb is a word which asserts something; as, est, _he is_; amat, he loves. The Inflection of Verbs is called Conjugation.

94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person:--

1. Two Voices,--Active and Passive.

2. Three Moods,--Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.

3. Six Tenses,--

Present, Perfect, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Future Perfect.

But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect; while the Imperative employs only the Present and Future.

4. Two Numbers,--Singular and Plural.

5. Three Persons,--First, Second, and Third.

95. These make up the so-called Finite Verb. Besides this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms:--

1. Noun Forms,--Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine.

2. Adjective Forms,--Participles (including the Gerundive).

96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are,--

Active. Passive. Sing. 1. -Å; -m; -Ä« (Perf. Ind.); -r. 2. -s; -stÄ« (Perf Ind.); -rÄ«s, -re; -tÅ or wanting (Impv.); -re, -tor (Impv.). 3. -t; -tÅ (Impv.); -tur; -tor (Impv.). Plu. 1. -mus; -mur. 2. -tis; -stis (Perf. Ind.); -minÄ«. -te, -tÅte (Impv.); 3. -nt; -Ä“runt (Perf Ind.); -ntur; -ntor (Impv.). -ntÅ (Impv.);

VERB STEMS.

97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings to the Stem. We distinguish three different stems in a fully inflected verb,--

I. Present Stem, from which are formed-- 1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, 2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, 3. The Imperative, 4. The Present Infinitive, - (Active and Passive.) 5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive. II. Perfect Stem, from which are formed-- 1. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, 3. Perfect Infinitive, - (Active.) III. Participial Stem, from which are formed-- 1. Perfect Participle, 2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, 4. Perfect Infinitive, - (Passive.)

Apparently from the same stem, though really of different origin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive Active and Passive.

THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, distinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows:--

INFINITIVE DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION. TERMINATION. VOWEL. I. -Äre Ä II. -Ä“re Ä“ III. -Ä•re Ä• IV. -Ä«re Ä«

99. PRINCIPAL PARTS. The Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle[28] constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb,--so called because they contain the different stems, from which the full conjugation of the verb may be derived.

* * * * *

CONJUGATION OF SUM.

100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given at the outset.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. FUT. PARTIC.[29] sum esse fuÄ« futÅ«rus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. sum, I am, sumus, we are, es, thou art, estis, you are, est, _he is_; sunt, they are.

IMPERFECT. eram, I was, erÄmus, we were, erÄs, thou wast, erÄtis, you were, erat, _he was_; erant, they were.

FUTURE. erÅ, I shall be, erimus, we shall be, eris, thou wilt be, eritis, you will be, erit, _he will be_; erunt, they will be.

PERFECT. fuÄ«, I have been, I was, fuimus, we have been, we were, fuistÄ«, thou hast been, _thou fuistis, you have been, you wast, were_, fuit, he has been, _he was_; fuÄ“runt, fuÄ“re, they have been, they were.

PLUPERFECT. fueram, I had been, fuerÄmus, we had been, fuerÄs, thou hadst been, fuerÄtis, you had been, fuerat, _he had been_; fuerant, they had been.

FUTURE PERFECT. fuerÅ, I shall have been, fuerimus, we shall have been, fueris, thou wilt have been, fueritis, you will have been, fuerit, _he will have been_; fuerint, they will have been.

SUBJUNCTIVE.[30]

PRESENT. SINGULAR. PLURAL. sim, may I be, sÄ«mus, let us be, sÄ«s, mayst thou be, sÄ«tis, be ye, may you be, sit, let him be, _may he be_; sint, let them be.

IMPERFECT. essem,[31] I should be, essÄ“mus, we should be, essÄ“s,[31] thou wouldst be, essÄ“tis, you would be, esset,[31] _he would be_; essent,[31] they would be.

PERFECT. fuerim, I may have been, fuerÄ«mus, we may have been, fuerÄ«s, thou mayst have been, fuerÄ«tis, you may have been, fuerit, _he may have been_; fuerint, they may have been.

PLUPERFECT. fuissem, I should have been, fuissÄ“mus, we should have been. fuissÄ“s, thou wouldst have been, fuissÄ“tis, you would have been, fuisset, _he would have been_; fuissent, they would have been.

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ es, _be thou_; este, be ye, _Fut._ estÅ, thou shalt be, estÅte, ye shall be, estÅ, _he shall be_; suntÅ, they shall be.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ esse, to be. _Perf._ fuisse, to have been. _Fut._ futÅ«rus esse,[32] _to be _Fut._ futÅ«rus,[33] about to be. about to be_.

* * * * *

FIRST (OR Ä€-) CONJUGATION.

101. Active Voice.--AmÅ, I love.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. amÅ amÄre amÄvÄ« amÄtus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. amÅ, I love, amÄmus, we love, amÄs, you love, amÄtis, you love, amat, _he loves_; amant, they love.

IMPERFECT. amÄbam, I was loving,[34] amÄbÄmus, we were loving, amÄbÄs, you were loving, amÄbÄtis, you were loving, amÄbat, _he was loving_; amÄbant, they were loving FUTURE. amÄbÅ, I shall love, amÄbimus, we shall love, amÄbis, you will love, amÄbitis, you will love, amÄbit, _he will love_; amÄbunt, they will love.

PERFECT. amÄvÄ«, I have loved, I loved, amÄvimus, we have loved, we loved, amÄvistÄ«, you have loved, _you amÄvistis, you have loved, you loved loved_, amÄvit, he has loved, _he loved_; amÄvÄ“runt, -Ä“re, they have loved, they loved.

PLUPERFECT. amÄveram, I had loved, amÄverÄmus, we had loved, amÄverÄs, you had loved, amÄverÄtis, you had loved, amÄverat, _he had loved_; amÄverant, they had loved.

FUTURE PERFECT. amÄverÅ, I shall have loved, amÄverimus, we shall have loved, amÄveris, you will have loved, amÄveritis, you will have loved, amÄverit, _he will have loved_; amÄverint, they will have loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT. amem, may I love, amÄ“mus, let us love, amÄ“s, may you love, amÄ“tis, may you love, amet, _let him love_; ament, let them love.

IMPERFECT. amÄrem, I should love, amÄrÄ“mus, we should love, amÄrÄ“s, you would love, amÄrÄ“tis, you would love, amÄret, _he would love_; amÄrent, they would love.

PERFECT. amÄverim, I may have loved, amÄverÄ«mus, we may have loved, amÄverÄ«s, you may have loved, amÄverÄ«tis, you may have loved, amÄverit, _he may have loved_; amÄverint, they may have loved.

PLUPERFECT. amÄvissem, I should have loved, amÄvÄ«ssÄ“mus, we should have loved, amÄvissÄ“s, you would have loved, amÄvissÄ“tis, you would have loved, amÄvisset, _he would have loved_; amÄvissent, they would have loved.

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ amÄ, _love thou_; amÄte, love ye. _Fut._ amÄtÅ, thou shalt love, amÄtÅte, ye shall love, amÄtÅ, _he shall love_; amantÅ, they shall love.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ amÄre, to love. _Pres._ amÄns,[35] loving. _Perf._ amÄvisse, to have loved. (Gen. amantis.) _Fut._ amÄtÅ«rus esse, _to be _Fut._ amÄtÅ«rus, about to love. about to love_

GERUND. SUPINE. _Gen._ amandÄ«, of loving, _Dat._ amandÅ, for loving, _Acc._ amandum, loving, _Acc._ amÄtum, to love, _Abl._ amandÅ, by loving. _Abl._ amÄtÅ«, to love, be loved.

102. Passive Voice.--Amor, I am loved.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. amÅr amÄrÄ« amÄtus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. _I am loved._ SINGULAR. PLURAL. amor amÄmur amÄris amÄminÄ« amÄtur amantur

IMPERFECT _I was loved._ amÄbar amÄbÄmur amÄbÄris, or -re amÄbÄmini amÄbÄtur amÄbantur

FUTURE. _I shall be loved._ amÄbor amÄbimur amÄberis, or -re amÄbiminÄ« amÄbitur amÄbuntur

PERFECT I have been loved, or _I was loved._ amÄtus (-a, -um) sum[36] amÄtÄ« (-ae, -a) sumus amÄtus es amÄtÄ« estis amÄtus est amÄtÄ« sunt

PLUPERFECT. _I had been loved._ amÄtus eram[36] amÄtÄ« erÄmus amÄtus erÄs amÄtÄ« erÄtis amÄtus erat amÄtÄ« erant

FUTURE PERFECT. _I shall have been loved._ amÄtus erÅ[36] amÄtÄ« erimus amÄtus eris amÄtÄ« eritis amÄtus erit amÄtÄ« erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT. May I be loved, _let him be loved._ amer amÄ“mur amÄ“ris, or -re amÄ“mini amÄ“tur amentur

IMPERFECT.

I should be loved, _he would be loved._ amÄrer amÄrÄ“mur amÄrÄ“ris, or -re amÄrÄ“minÄ« amÄrÄ“tur amÄrentur

PERFECT.

_I may have been loved._ amÄtus sim[37] amÄtÄ« sÄ«mus amÄtus sÄ«s amÄti sÄ«tis amÄtus sit amÄti sint

PLUPERFECT.

I should have been loved, _he would have been loved._ amÄtus essem[37] amÄtÄ« essÄ“mus amÄtus essÄ“s amÄtÄ« essÄ“tis amÄtus esset amÄti essent

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ amÄre,[38] _be thou amÄminÄ«, _be ye loved._ loved_; _Fut._ amÄtor, thou shalt be loved, amÄtor, _he shall be amantor, they shall be loved. loved_;

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ amÄrÄ«, to be loved. _Perf._ amÄtus esse, _to have been _Perfect._ amÄtus, loved, loved_. having been loved. _Fut._ amÄtum Ä«rÄ«, _to be about _Gerundive._ amandus, to be to be loved. loved_, _deserving to be loved._

* * * * *

SECOND (OR Ä’-) CONJUGATION.

103. Active voice.--MoneÅ, _I advise._

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. moneÅ monÄ“re monuÄ« monitus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. _I advise._

SINGULAR. PLURAL. moneÅ monÄ“mus monÄ“s monÄ“tis monet monent

IMPERFECT. I was advising, or _I advised._ monÄ“bam monÄ“bÄmus monÄ“bÄs monÄ“bÄtis monÄ“bat monÄ“bant

FUTURE. _I shall advise._ monÄ“bÅ monÄ“bimus monÄ“bis monÄ“bitis monÄ“bit monÄ“bunt

PERFECT. I have advised, or _I advised._ monuÄ« monuimus monuistÄ« monuistis monuit monuÄ“runt, or -Ä“re

PLUPERFECT. _I had advised._ monueram monuerÄmus monuerÄs monuerÄtis monuerat monuerant

FUTURE PERFECT. _I shall have advised._ monuerÅ monuerimus monueris monueritis monuerit monuerint

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.

May I advise, _let him advise._ moneam moneÄmus moneÄs moneÄtis moneat moneant

IMPERFECT. I should advise, _he would advise._ monÄ“rem monÄ“rÄ“mus monÄ“rÄ“s monÄ“rÄ“tis monÄ“ret monÄ“rent

PERFECT. _I may have advised._ monuerim monuerÄ«mus monuerÄ«s monuerÄ«tis monuerit monuerint

PLUPERFECT. I should have advised, _he would have advised._ monuissem monuissÄ“mus monuissÄ“s monuissÄ“tis monuisset monuissent

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ monÄ“, _advise thou_; monÄ“te, advise ye. _Fut._ monÄ“tÅ, _thou shall monÄ“tÅte, ye shall advise, advise_, monÄ“tÅ, _he shall advise_; monentÅ, _they shall advise._

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ monÄ“re, to advise. _Pres._ monÄ“ns, advising. _Perf._ monuisse, _to have (Gen. monentis.) advised_. _Fut._ monitÅ«rus esse, _to be _Fut._ monitÅ«rus, about to about to advise. advise_.

GERUND. SUPINE. _Gen._ monendÄ«, of advising, _Dat._ monendÅ, for advising, _Acc._ monendum, advising, _Acc._ monitum, to advise, _Abl._ monendÅ, by advising. _Abl._ monitÅ«, to advise, be advised.

104. Passive voice.--Moneor, I am advised.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. moneor monÄ“rÄ« monitus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. _I am advised._

SINGULAR. PLURAL. moneor monÄ“mur monÄ“ris monÄ“minÄ« monÄ“tur monentur

IMPERFECT. _I was advised._ monÄ“bar monÄ“bÄmur monÄ“bÄris, or -re monÄ“bÄminÄ« monÄ“bÄtur monÄ“bantur

FUTURE. _I shall be advised._ monÄ“bor monÄ“bimur monÄ“beris, or -re monÄ“biminÄ« monÄ“bitur monÄ“buntur

PERFECT. I have been advised, _I was advised._ monitus sum monitÄ« sumus monitus es monitÄ« estis monitus est monitÄ« sunt

PLUPERFECT. _I had been advised._ monitus eram monitÄ« erÄmus monitus erÄs monitÄ« erÄtis monitus erat monitÄ« erant

FUTURE PERFECT. _I shall have been advised._ monitus erÅ monitÄ« erimus monitus eris monitÄ« eritis monitus erit monitÄ« erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT. May I be advised, _let him be advised._ monear moneÄmur moneÄris, or -re moneÄminÄ« moneÄtur moneantur

IMPERFECT. I should be advised, _he would be advised._ monÄ“rer monÄ“rÄ“mur monÄ“rÄ“ris, or -re monÄ“rÄ“minÄ« monÄ“rÄ“tur monÄ“rentur

PERFECT. _I may have been advised._ monitus sim monitÄ« sÄ«mus monitus sÄ«s monitÄ« sÄ«tis monitus sit monitÄ« sint

PLUPERFECT. I should have been advised, _he would have been advised._ monitus essem monitÄ« essÄ“mus monitus essÄ“s monitÄ« essÄ“tis monitus esset monitÄ« essent

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ monÄ“re, _be thou advised_; monÄ“minÄ«, be ye advised. _Fut._ monÄ“tor, thou shalt be advised, monÄ“tor, _he shall be monentor, they shall be advised. advised_.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ monÄ“rÄ«, to be advised. _Perfect._ monitus, advised, having been advised. _Perf._ monitus esse, to have been advised _Fut._ monitum Ä«rÄ«, _to be about _Gerundive._ monendus, _to be to be advised._ advised_, _deserving to be advised._

* * * * *

THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.

105. Active Voice.--RegÅ, I rule.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. regÅ regere rÄ“xÄ« rÄ“ctus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. I rule SINGULAR. PLURAL. regÅ regimus regis regitis regit regunt

IMPERFECT. I was ruling, or I ruled. regÄ“bam regÄ“bÄmus regÄ“bÄs regÄ“bÄtis regÄ“bat regÄ“bant

FUTURE. I shall rule. regam regÄ“mus regÄ“s regÄ“tis reget regent

PERFECT. I have ruled, or I ruled rÄ“xÄ« rÄ“ximus rÄ“xistÄ« rÄ“xistis rÄ“xit rÄ“xÄ“runt, or -Ä“re

PLUPERFECT. I had ruled. rÄ“xeram rÄ“xerÄmus rÄ“xerÄs rÄ“xerÄtis rÄ“xerat rÄ“xerant

FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have ruled. rÄ“xerÅ rÄ“xerimus rÄ“xeris rÄ“xeritis rÄ“xerit rÄ“xerint

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT. May I rule, _let him rule._ regam regÄmus regÄs regÄtis regat regant

IMPERFECT. I should rule, _he would rule._ regerem regerÄ“mus regerÄ“s regerÄ“tis regeret regerent

PERFECT. _I may have ruled._ rÄ“xerim rÄ“xerÄ«mus rÄ“xerÄ«s rÄ“xerÄ«tis rÄ“xerit rÄ“xerint

PLUPERFECT. I should have ruled, _he would have ruled._ rÄ“xissem rÄ“xissÄ“mus rÄ“xissÄ“s rÄ“xissÄ“tis rÄ“xisset rÄ“xissent

IMPERATIVE. rege, _rule thou_; regite, rule ye. regitÅ, thou shall rule, regitÅte, ye shall rule, regitÅ, _he shall rule_; reguntÅ, they shall rule.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. regere, to rule. _Pres._ regÄ“ns, ruling. rÄ“xisse, to have ruled. (Gen. regentis.) rÄ“ctÅ«rus esse, _to be about to _Fut._ rÄ“ctÅ«rus, about to rule rule_.

GERUND. SUPINE. regendÄ«, of ruling, regendÅ, for ruling, regendum, ruling, _Acc._ rÄ“ctum, to rule, regendÅ, by ruling. _Abl._ rÄ“ctÅ«, to rule, be ruled.

106. Passive Voice.--Regor, I am ruled.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. regor regÄ« rÄ“ctus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. _I am ruled._

SINGULAR. PLURAL. regor regimur regeris regiminÄ« regitur reguntur

IMPERFECT. _I was ruled._ regÄ“bar regÄ“bÄmur regÄ“bÄris, or -re regÄ“bÄminÄ« regÄ“bÄtur regÄ“bantur

FUTURE. _I shall be ruled._ regar regÄ“mur regÄ“ris, or -re regÄ“minÄ« regÄ“tur regentur

PERFECT. I have been ruled, or I was ruled. rÄ“ctus sum rÄ“ctÄ« sumus rÄ“ctus es rÄ“ctÄ« estis rÄ“ctus est rÄ“ctÄ« sunt

PLUPERFECT. _I had been ruled._ rÄ“ctus eram rÄ“ctÄ« erÄmus rÄ“ctus erÄs rÄ“ctÄ« erÄtis rÄ“ctus erat rÄ“ctÄ« erant

FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have been ruled rÄ“ctus erÅ rÄ“ctÄ« erimus rÄ“ctus eris rÄ“ctÄ« eritis rÄ“ctus erit rÄ“ctÄ« erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT. May I be ruled, _let him be ruled._ regar regÄmur regÄris, or -re regÄminÄ« regÄtur regantur

IMPERFECT. I should be ruled, _he would be ruled._ regerer regerÄ“mur regerÄ“ris, or -re regerÄ“minÄ« regerÄ“tur regerentur

PERFECT. _I may have been ruled._ rÄ“ctus sim rÄ“ctÄ« sÄ«mus rÄ“ctus sÄ«s rÄ“ctÄ« sÄ«tis rÄ“ctus sit rÄ“ctÄ« sint

PLUPERFECT. I should have been ruled, _he would have been ruled._ rÄ“ctus essem rÄ“ctÄ« essÄ“mus rÄ“ctus essÄ“s rectÄ« essÄ“tis rÄ“ctus esset rectÄ« essent

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ regere, _be thou ruled_; regiminÄ«, be ye ruled. _Fut._ regitor, thou shalt be ruled, regitor, _he shall be reguntor, they shall be ruled. ruled_;

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ regÄ«, to be ruled. _Perfect._ rÄ“ctus, ruled, having been ruled. _Perf._ rÄ“ctus esse, _to have been _Gerundive._ regendus, to be ruled. ruled_, deserving to be ruled. _Fut._ rÄ“ctum Ä«rÄ«, to be about to be ruled.

* * * * *

FOURTH (OR Äª-) CONJUGATION.

107. Active voice.--AudiÅ, I hear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. audiÅ audÄ«re audÄ«vÄ« audÄ«tus

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. _I hear._

SINGULAR. PLURAL. audiÅ audÄ«mus audÄ«s audÄ«tis audit audiunt

IMPERFECT. I was hearing, or _I heard._ audiÄ“bam audiÄ“bÄmus audiÄ“bÄs audiÄ“bÄtis audiÄ“bat audiÄ“bant

FUTURE. _I shall hear._ audiam audiÄ“mus audiÄ“s audiÄ“tis audiet audient

PERFECT. I have heard, or _I heard._ audÄ«vÄ« audÄ«vimus audÄ«vistÄ« audÄ«vistis audÄ«vit audÄ«vÄ“runt, _or _-Ä“re

PLUPERFECT. _I had heard._ audÄ«veram audÄ«verÄmus audÄ«verÄs audÄ«verÄtis audÄ«verat audÄ«verant

FUTURE PERFECT. _I shall have heard._ audÄ«verÅ audÄ«verimus audÄ«veris audÄ«veritis audÄ«verit audÄ«verint

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT. May I hear, _let him hear._ audiam audiÄmus audiÄs audiÄtis audiat audiant

IMPERFECT. I should hear, _he would hear._ audÄ«rem audÄ«rÄ“mus audÄ«rÄ“s audÄ«rÄ“tis audÄ«ret audÄ«rent

PERFECT. _I may have heard._ audÄ«verim audÄ«verÄ«mus audÄ«verÄ«s audÄ«verÄ«tis audÄ«verit audÄ«verint

PLUPERFECT. I should have heard, _he would have heard._ audÄ«vissem audÄ«vissÄ“mus audÄ«vissÄ“s audÄ«vissÄ“tis audÄ«visset audÄ«vissent

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ audÄ«, _hear thou_; audÄ«te, hear ye. _Fut._ audÄ«tÅ, thou shalt hear, audÄ«tÅte, ye shall hear, audÄ«tÅ, _he shall hear_; audiuntÅ, they shall hear.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ audÄ«re, to hear. _Pres._ audiÄ“ns, hearing. _Perf._ audÄ«visse, _to have (Gen. audientis.) heard_. _Fut._ audÄ«tÅ«rus esse, _to be _Fut._ audÄ«tÅ«rus, about to about to hear. hear_.

GERUND. SUPINE _Gen._ audiendÄ«, of hearing, _Dat._ audiendÅ, for hearing, _Acc._ audiendum, hearing, _Acc._ audÄ«tum, to hear, _Abl._ audiendÅ, by hearing. _Abl._ audÄ«tÅ«, _to hear, be heard_.

108. Passive Voice.--Audior, I am heard.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. audior audÄ«rÄ« audÄ«tus sum

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE. I am heard.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. audior audÄ«mur audÄ«ris audÄ«minÄ« audÄ«tur audiuntur

IMPERFECT. I was heard. audiÄ“bar audiÄ“bÄmur audiÄ“bÄris, or -re audiÄ“bÄminÄ« audiÄ“bÄtur audiÄ“bantur

FUTURE. I shall be heard. audiar audiÄ“mur audiÄ“ris, or -re audiÄ“minÄ« audiÄ“tur audientur

PERFECT. I have been heard, or I was heard. audÄ«tus sum audÄ«tÄ« sumus audÄ«tus es audÄ«tÄ« estis audÄ«tus est audÄ«tÄ« sunt

PLUPERFECT. I had been heard. audÄ«tus eram audÄ«tÄ« erÄmus audÄ«tus erÄs audÄ«tÄ« erÄtis audÄ«tus erat audÄ«tÄ« erant

FUTURE PERFECT. I shall have been heard. audÄ«tus erÅ audÄ«tÄ« erimus audÄ«tus eris audÄ«tÄ« eritis audÄ«tus erit audÄ«tÄ« erunt

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT.

May I be heard, let him be heard. audiar audiÄmur audiÄris, or -re audiÄminÄ« audiÄtur audiantur

IMPERFECT. I should be heard, he would be heard. audÄ«rer audÄ«rÄ“mur audÄ«rÄ“ris, or -re audirÄ“minÄ« audÄ«rÄ“tur audÄ«rentur

PERFECT. I may have been heard. audÄ«tus sim audÄ«tÄ« sÄ«mus audÄ«tus sÄ«s audÄ«tÄ« sÄ«tis audÄ«tus sit audÄ«tÄ« sint

PLUPERFECT.

I should have been heard, he would have been heard. audÄ«tus essem audÄ«tÄ« essÄ“mus audÄ«tus essÄ“s audÄ«tÄ« essÄ“tis audÄ«tus esset audÄ«tÄ« essent

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ audÄ«re, _be thou heard_; audÄ«minÄ«, be ye heard. _Fut._ audÄ«tor, thou shalt be heard, audÄ«tor, _he shall be audiuntor, they shall be heard. heard_;

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ audÄ«rÄ«, to be heard. _Perfect._ audÄ«tus, heard, having been heard _Perf._ audÄ«tus esse, _to have _Gerundive._ audiendus, to be been heard. heard_, deserving to be heard _Fut._ audÄ«tum Ä«rÄ«, to be about to be heard.

* * * * *

VERBS IN -IÅŒ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.

109. 1. Verbs in -iÅ of the Third Conjugation take the endings of the Fourth Conjugation wherever the latter endings have two successive vowels. This occurs only in the Present System.

2. Here belong--

a) capiÅ, _to take_; cupiÅ, _to desire_; faciÅ, _to make_; fodiÅ, _to dig_; fugiÅ, _to flee_; jaciÅ, _to throw_; pariÅ, _to bear_; quatiÅ, _to shake_; rapiÅ, _to seize_; sapiÅ, to taste.

b) Compounds of laciÅ and speciÅ (both ante-classical); as, alliciÅ, _entice_; cÅnspiciÅ, behold.

c) The deponents gradior, _to go_; morior, to die, patior, to suffer.

110. Active voice.--CapiÅ, I take.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. PERF. PASS. PARTIC. capiÅ, capere, cÄ“pÄ«, captus.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. capiÅ, capis, capit; capimus, capitis, capiunt.

IMPERFECT. capiÄ“bam, -iÄ“bÄs, -iÄ“bat; capiÄ“bÄmus, -iÄ“bÄtis, -iÄ“bant.

FUTURE. capiam, -iÄ“s, -iet; capiÄ“mus, -iÄ“tis, -ient.

PERFECT. cÄ“pÄ«, -istÄ«, -it; cÄ“pimus, -istis, -Ä“runt or -Ä“re.

PLUPERFECT. cÄ“peram, -erÄs, -erat; cÄ“perÄmus, -erÄtis, -erant.

FUTURE PERFECT. cÄ“perÅ, -eris, -erit; cÄ“perimus, -eritis, -erint.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT. capiam, -iÄs, -iat; capiÄmus, -iÄtis, -iant.

IMPERFECT. caperem, -erÄ“s, -eret; caperÄ“mus, -erÄ“tis, -erent.

PERFECT. cÄ“perim, -eris, -erit; cÄ“perÄ«mus, -erÄ«tis, -erint.

PLUPERFECT. cÄ“pissem, -issÄ“s, -isset; cÄ“pissÄ“mus, -issÄ“tis, -issent.

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ cape; capite. _Fut._ capitÅ, capitÅte, capitÅ; capiuntÅ.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ capere _Pres._ capiÄ“ns. _Perf._ cÄ“pisse. _Fut._ captÅ«rus esse. _Fut._ captÅ«rus.

GERUND. SUPINE. _Gen._ capiendÄ«, _Dat._ capiendÅ, _Acc._ capiendum, _Acc._ captum, _Abl._ capiendÅ. _Abl._ captÅ«.

111. Passive Voice.--Capior, I am taken.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. capior, capÄ«, captus sum.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

PRESENT TENSE.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. capior, caperis, capitur; capimur, capiminÄ«, capiuntur.

IMPERFECT. capiÄ“bar, -iÄ“bÄris, -iÄ“bÄtur; capiÄ“bÄmur, -iÄ“bÄminÄ«, -iÄ“bantur.

FUTURE. capiar, -iÄ“ris, -iÄ“tur; capiÄ“mur, -iÄ“minÄ«, -ientur.

PERFECT. captus sum, es, est; captÄ« sumus, estis, sunt.

PLUPERFECT. captus eram, erÄs, erat; captÄ« erÄmus, erÄtis, erant.

FUTURE PERFECT. captus erÅ, eris, erit; captÄ« erimus, eritis, erunt.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

PRESENT. capiar, -iÄris, -iÄtur; capiÄmur, -iÄminÄ«, -iantur.

IMPERFECT. caperer, -erÄ“ris, -erÄ“tur; caperÄ“mur, -erÄ“minÄ«, -erentur.

PERFECT. captus sim, sÄ«s, sit; captÄ« sÄ«mus, sÄ«tis, sint.

PLUPERFECT. captus essem, essÄ“s, esset; captÄ« essÄ“mus, essÄ“tis, essent.

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ capere; capiminÄ«. _Fut._ capitor, capitor; capiuntor.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ capÄ«. _Perf._ captus esse. _Perfect._ captus. _Fut._ captum Ä«rÄ«. _Gerundive._ capiendus.

* * * * *

DEPONENT VERBS.

112. Deponent Verbs have in the main Passive forms with Active or Neuter meaning. But--

a. They have the following Active forms: Future Infinitive, Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine.

b. They have the following Passive meanings: always in the Gerundive, and sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle; as--

sequendus, _to be followed_; adeptus, attained.

113. Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are--

I. Conj. mÄ«ror, mÄ«rÄrÄ«, mÄ«rÄtus sum, admire. II. Conj. vereor, vererÄ«, veritus sum, fear. III. Conj. sequor, sequÄ«, secÅ«tus sum, follow. IV. Conj. largior, largÄ«rÄ«, largÄ«tus sum, give. III. (in -ior) patior, patÄ«, passus sum, suffer.

INDICATIVE MOOD. I. II. III. IV. III (in -ior) _Pres._ mÄ«ror vereor sequor largior patior mÄ«rÄris verÄ“ris sequeris largiris pateris mÄ«rÄtur verÄ“tur sequitur largÄ«tur patitur mÄ«ramur verÄ“mur sequimur largÄ«mur patimur mÄ«rÄminÄ« verÄ“minÄ« sequiminÄ« largÄ«minÄ« patiminÄ« mÄ«rantur verentur sequuntur largiuntur patiuntur _Impf._ mÄ«rÄbar verÄ“bar sequÄ“bar largiÄ“bar patiÄ“bar _Fut._ mÄ«rÄbor verÄ“bor sequar largiar patiar _Perf._ mirÄtus sum veritus sum secÅ«tus sum largÄ«tus sum passus sum _Plup._ mÄ«rÄtus veritus secÅ«tus largÄ«tus passus eram eram eram eram eram _F.P._ mÄ«rÄtus erÅ veritus erÅ secÅ«tus erÅ largÄ«tus erÅ passus erÅ

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres._ mÄ«rer verear sequar largiar patiar _Impf._ mÄ«rÄrer verÄ“rer sequerer largÄ«rer paterer _Perf._ mÄ«rÄtus sim veritus sim secÅ«tus sim largÄ«tus sim passus sim _Plup._ mÄ«rÄtus veritus sectÅ«tus largÄ«tus passus essem essem essem essem essem

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ mÄ«rÄre, verÄ“re, sequere, largÄ«re, patere, etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. _Fut._ mÄ«rÄtor, verÄ“tor, sequitor, largÄ«tor, patitor, etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.

INFINITIVE. _Pres._ mÄ«rÄri verÄ“rÄ« sequÄ« largÄ«rÄ« patÄ« _Perf._ mÄ«rÄtus veritus secÅ«tus largÄ«tus passus esse esse esse esse esse _Fut._ mÄ«rÄtÅ«rus veritÅ«rus secÅ«tÅ«rus largÄ«tÅ«rus passÅ«rus esse esse esse esse esse

PARTICIPLES. _Pres._ mÄ«rÄns verÄ“ns sequÄ“ns largiÄ“ns patiÄ“ns _Fut._ mÄ«rÄtÅ«rus veritÅ«rus secÅ«tÅ«rus largitÅ«rus passÅ«rus _Perf._ mÄ«rÄtus veritus secÅ«tus largitus passus _Ger._ mÄ«randus verendus sequendus largiendus patiendus

GERUND. mÄ«randÄ« verendÄ« sequendÄ« largiendÄ« patiendÄ« mirandÅ, verendÅ, sequendÅ, largiendÅ, patiendÅ, etc. etc. etc. etc. etc.

SUPINE. mÄ«rÄtum, veritum, secÅ«tum, largÄ«tum, passum, -tÅ« -tÅ« -tÅ« -tÅ« -sÅ«

* * * * *

SEMI-DEPONENTS.

114. 1. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Present System in the Active Voice, but the Perfect System in the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong--

audeÅ, audÄ“re, ausus sum, to dare. gaudeÅ, gaudÄ“re, gÄvÄ«sus sum, to rejoice. soleÅ, solÄ“re, solitus sum, to be wont. fÄ«dÅ, fÄ«dere, fÄ«sus sum, to trust.

2. The following verbs have a Perfect Passive Participle with Active meaning:--

adolÄ“scÅ, _grow up_; adultus, having grown up, cÄ“nÄre, _dine_; cÄ“nÄtus, having dined. placÄ“re, _please_; placitus, having pleased, agreeable. prandÄ“re, _lunch_; prÄnsus, having lunched. pÅtÄre, _drink_; pÅtus, having drunk. jÅ«rÄre, _swear_; jÅ«rÄtus, having sworn.

a. JÅ«rÄtus is used in a passive sense also.

3. Revertor and dÄ“vertor both regularly form their Perfect in the Active Voice; viz.--

revertor, revertÄ« (Inf.), revertÄ« (Perf.), to return. dÄ“vertor, dÄ“vertÄ« (Inf.), dÄ“vertÄ« (Perf.), to turn aside.

* * * * *

PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.

115. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations,--the Active and the Passive. The Active is formed by combining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum, the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same auxiliary.

Active Periphrastic Conjugation.

INDICATIVE MOOD. _Pres._ amÄtÅ«rus (-a, -um) sum, I am about to love. _Inf._ amÄtÅ«rus eram, I was about to love. _Fut._ amÄtÅ«rus erÅ, I shall be about to love. _Perf._ amÄtÅ«rus fuÄ«, _I have been (was) about to love_. _Plup._ amÄtÅ«rus fueram, I had been about to love. _Fut. P._ amÄtÅ«rus fuerÅ, I shall have been about to love.

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres._ amÄtÅ«rus sim, may I be about to love. _Imp._ amÄtÅ«rus essem, I should be about to love. _Perf._ amÄtÅ«rus fuerim, I may have been about to love. _Plup._ amÄtÅ«rus fuissem, I should have been about to love.

INFINITIVE. _Pres._ amÄtÅ«rus esse, to be about to love. _Perf._ amÄtÅ«rus fuisse, to have been about to love.

Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.

INDICATIVE. _Pres._ amandus (-a, -um) sum, I am to be loved, must be loved. _Imp._ amandus eram, I was to be loved. _Fut._ amandus erÅ, I shall deserve to be loved. _Perf._ amandus fuÄ«, I was to be loved. _Plup._ amandus fueram, I had deserved to be loved. _Fut. P._ amandus fuerÅ, I shall have deserved to be loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres._ amandus sim, may I deserve to be loved. _Imp._ amandus essem, I should deserve to be loved. _Perf._ amandus fuerim, I may have deserved to be loved. _Plup._ amendus fuissem, I should have deserved to be loved.

INFINITIVE. _Pres._ amandus esse, to deserve to be loved. _Perf._ amantus fuisse, to have deserved to be loved.

* * * * *

PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.

116. 1. Perfects in -ÄvÄ«, -Ä“vÄ«, and -Ä«vÄ«, with the forms derived from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or s. So also nÅvÄ« (from nÅscÅ) and the compounds of mÅvÄ« (from moveÅ). Thus:--

amÄvistÄ« amÄstÄ« dÄ“lÄ“vistÄ« dÄ“lÄ“stÄ« amÄvisse amÄsse dÄ“lÄ“visse dÄ“lÄ“sse amÄvÄ“runt amÄrunt dÄ“lÄ“vÄ“runt dÄ“lÄ“runt amÄverim amÄrim dÄ“lÄ“verim dÄ“lÄ“rim amÄveram amÄram dÄ“lÄ“veram dÄ“lÄ“ram amÄverÅ amÄrÅ dÄ“lÄ“verÅ dÄ“lÄ“rÅ nÅvistÄ« nÅstÄ« nÅverim nÅrim nÅvisse nÅsse nÅveram nÅram audÄ«vistÄ« audÄ«stÄ« audÄ«visse audÄ«sse

2. In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conjugations, the endings -undus, -undÄ«, often occur instead of -endus and -endÄ«, as faciundus, faciundÄ«.

3. DÄ«cÅ, dÅ«cÅ, faciÅ, form the Imperatives, dÄ«c, dÅ«c, fac. But compounds of faciÅ form the Imperative in -fice, as cÅnfice. Compounds of dÄ«cÅ, dÅ«cÅ, accent the ultima; as, Ä“dÅ«Â´c, Ä“dÄ«Â´c.

4. Archaic and Poetic forms:--

a. The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive; as, amÄrier, monÄ“rier, dÄ«cier, for amÄrÄ«, monÄ“rÄ«, dÄ«cÄ«.

b. The ending -Ä«bam for -iÄ“bam in Imperfects of the Fourth Conjugation, and -Ä«bÅ for -iam in Futures; as, scÄ«bam, scÄ«bÅ, for sciÄ“bam, sciam.

c. Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dÄ«xistÄ«, scrÄ«psistis, surrÄ“xisse, we sometimes find dÄ«xtÄ«, scrÄ«pstis, surrÄ“xe, etc.

d. The endings -im, -Ä«s, etc. (for -am, -Äs, etc.) occur in a few Subjunctive forms; as, edim (_eat_), duint, perduint.

5. In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxiliary esse is often omitted; as, ÄctÅ«rum for Äcturum esse; Ä“jectus for Ä“jectus esse.

* * * * *

FORMATION OF THE VERB STEMS.

Formation of the Present Stem.

117. Many verbs employ the simple Verb Stem for the Present Stem;[39] as, dÄ«cere, amÄre, monÄ“re, audÄ«re. Others modify the Verb Stem to form the Present, as follows:--

1. By appending the vowels, Ä, Ä“, Ä«; as,--

Present Stem Verb Stem juvÄre, juvÄ- juv-. augÄ“re, augÄ“- aug-. vincÄ«re, vincÄ«- vinc-.

2. By adding i, as capiÅ, Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-).

3. By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final consonant of the Verb Stem; as, fundÅ (Stem fud-), rumpÅ (Stem rup-).

4. By appending -n to the Verb Stem; as,--

cern-Å pell-Å (for pel-nÅ).

5. By appending t to the Verb Stem; as,--

flect-Å.

6. By appending sc to the Verb Stem; as,--

crÄ“sc-Å. scÄ«sc-Å.

7. By Reduplication, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant of the Verb Stem with i; as,--

gi-gn-Å (root gen-), si-st-Å (root sta-).

Formation of the Perfect Stem.

118. The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem--

1. By adding v (in case of Vowel Stems); as,--

amÄv-Ä«, dÄ“lÄ“v-Ä«, audÄ«v-Ä«.

2. By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems); as,--

strepu-Ä«, genu-Ä«, alu-Ä«.

3. By adding s (in case of most Consonant Stems); as,--

carp-Å, Perfect carps-Ä«. scrÄ«b-Å, " scrÄ«ps-Ä« (for scrÄ«b-sÄ«). rÄ«d-eÅ, " rÄ«s-Ä« (for rÄ«d-sÄ«). sent-iÅ, " sÄ“ns-Ä« (for sent-sÄ«). dÄ«c-Å, " dÄ«x-Ä« (i.e. dÄ«c-sÄ«).

a. Note that before the ending -sÄ« a Dental Mute (t, d) is lost; a Guttural Mute (c, g) unites with s to form x; while the Labial b is changed to p.

4. Without addition. Of this formation there are three types:--

a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial consonant with the following vowel or e; as,--

currÅ, Perfect cu-currÄ«. poscÅ, " po-poscÄ«. pellÅ, " pe-pulÄ«.

NOTE 1.--Compounds, with the exception of dÅ, stÅ, sistÅ, discÅ, poscÅ, omit the reduplication. Thus: com-pulÄ«, but re-poposcÄ«.

NOTE 2.--Verbs beginning with sp or st retain both consonants in the reduplication, but drop s from the stem; as, spondeÅ, spo-pondÄ«; stÅ, stetÄ«.

b) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened; as, legÅ, lÄ“gÄ«; agÅ, Ä“gÄ«. Note that Äƒ by this process becomes Ä“.

c) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged; as, vertÅ, vertÄ«; minuÅ, minuÄ«.

Formation of the Participial Stem.

119. The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the Participial Stem is derived by dropping -us, is formed:--

1. By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to the Verb Stem); as,--

amÄ-re, Participle amÄ-tus. dÄ“lÄ“-re, " dÄ“lÄ“-tus, audÄ«-re, " audÄ«-tus, leg-ere, " lÄ“c-tus, scrÄ«b-ere, " scrÄ«p-tus, sentÄ«-re, " sÄ“n-sus (for sent-tus). caed-ere, " cae-sus (for caed-tus).

a. Note that g, before t, becomes c (see Â§ 8, 5); b becomes p; while dt or tt becomes ss, which is then often simplified to s (Â§ 8, 2).

2. After the analogy of Participles like sÄ“nsus and caesus, where -sus arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb Stems; as,--

lÄb-Ä«, Participle lÄp-sus. fÄ«g-ere, " fÄ«-xus.

a. The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -sus to the stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see Â§ 118, 3, a).

3. A few Verbs form the Participle in -Ätus; as,--

domÄ-re, dom-Ätus. monÄ“-re, mon-Ätus.

4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with the Perfect Passive Participle; as, amÄ-tus, amÄtÅ«rus; moni-tus, monitÅ«rus. But--

juvÄ-re, Perf. Partic. jÅ«tus, has Fut. Act. Partic. juvÄtÅ«rus.[40] lavÄ-re, " " lautus, " " " lavÄtÅ«rus. par-ere, " " partus, " " " paritÅ«rus. ru-ere, " " rutus, " " " ruitÅ«rus. secÄƒ-re, " " sectus, " " " secÄtÅ«rus. fru-Ä, " " frÅ«ctus, " " " fruitÅ«rus. mor-Ä«, " " mortuus, " " " moritÅ«rus. orÄ«-rÄ«, " " ortus, " " " oritÅ«rus.

* * * * *

LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS, WITH PRINCIPAL PARTS.

First (_Ä€_-) Conjugation.

120. I. PERFECT IN -VÄª.

amÅ amÄre amÄvÄ« amÄtus love All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.

pÅtÅ pÅtÄre pÅtÄvÄ« pÅtus (Â§ 114, drink 2)

II. PERFECT IN -UÄª.

crepÅ crepÄre crepuÄ« crepitÅ«rus rattle cubÅ cubÄre cubuÄ« cubitÅ«rus lie down domÅ domÄre domuÄ« domitus tame fricÅ fricÄre fricuÄ« frictus and rub fricÄtus micÅ micÄre micuÄ« ---- glitter dÄ«micÅ dÄ«micÄre dÄ«micÄvÄ« dÄ«micÄtum fight (est)[41] ex-plicÅ explicÄre explicÄvÄ« explicÄtus unfold (-uÄ«) (-itus) im-plicÅ implicÄre implicÄvÄ« implicÄtus entwine (-uÄ«) (-itus) secÅ secÄre secuÄ« sectus cut sonÅ sonÄre sonuÄ« sonÄtÅ«rus sound tonÅ tonÄre tonuÄ« ---- thunder vetÅ vetÄre vetuÄ« vetitus forbid III. PERFECT IN -Äª WITH LENGTHENING OF THE STEM VOWEL.

juvÅ juvÄre jÅ«vÄ« jÅ«tus help lavÅ lavÄre lÄvÄ« lautus wash IV. PERFECT REDUPLICATED.

stÅ stÄre stetÄ« stÄtÅ«rus

V. DEPONENTS.

These are all regular, and follow _mÄ«ror_, _mÄ«rÄrÄ«_, _mÄ«rÄtus sum_.

Second (_Ä’_-) Conjugation.

121. I. PERFECT IN -VÄª.

dÄ“leÅ dÄ“lÄ“re dÄ“lÄ“vÄ« dÄ“lÄ“tus destroy fleÅ flÄ“re flÄ“vÄ« flÄ“tus weep, lament com-pleÅ[42] complÄ“re complÄ“vÄ« complÄ“tus fill up aboleÅ abolÄ“re abolÄ“vÄ« abolitus destroy cieÅ[43] ciÄ“re cÄ«vÄ« citus set in motion II. PERFECT IN -UÄª.

a. Type -eÅ, -Ä“re, -uÄ«, -itus.

arceÅ arcÄ“re arcuÄ« keep off coerceÅ coercÄ“re coercuÄ« coercitus hold in check exerceÅ exercÄ“re exercuÄ« exercitus practise caleÅ calÄ“re caluÄ« calitÅ«rus be warm careÅ carÄ“re caruÄ« caritÅ«rus be without doleÅ dolÄ“re doluÄ« dolitÅ«rus grieve habeÅ habÄ“re habuÄ« habitus have dÄ“beÅ dÄ“bÄ“re dÄ“buÄ« dÄ“bitus owe praebeÅ praebÄ“re praebuÄ« praebitus offer jaceÅ jacÄ“re jacuÄ« jacitÅ«rus lie mereÅ merÄ“re meruÄ« meritus earn, deserve moneÅ monÄ“re monuÄ« monitus advise noceÅ nocÄ“re nocuÄ« nocitum (est) injure pÄreÅ pÄrÄ“re pÄruÄ« pÄritÅ«rus obey placeÅ placÄ“re placuÄ« placitÅ«rus please taceÅ tacÄ“re tacuÄ« tacitÅ«rus be silent terreÅ terrÄ“re terruÄ« territus frighten valeÅ valÄ“re valuÄ« valitÅ«rus be strong NOTE 1.--The following lack the Participial Stem:-- egeÅ egÄ“re eguÄ« ---- want Ä“mineÅ Ä“minÄ“re Ä“minuÄ« ---- stand forth flÅreÅ flÅrÄ“re flÅruÄ« ---- bloom horreÅ horrÄ“re horruÄ« ---- bristle lateÅ latÄ“re latuÄ« ---- lurk niteÅ nitÄ“re nituÄ« ---- gleam oleÅ olÄ“re oluÄ« ---- smell palleÅ pallÄ“re palluÄ« ---- be pale pateÅ patÄ“re patuÄ« ---- lie open rubeÅ rubÄ“re rubuÄ« ---- be red sileÅ silÄ“re siluÄ« ---- be silent splendeÅ splendÄ“re splenduÄ« ---- gleam studeÅ studÄ“re studuÄ« ---- study stupeÅ stupÄ“re stupuÄ« ---- be amazed timeÅ timÄ“re timuÄ« ---- fear torpeÅ torpÄ“re torpuÄ« ---- be dull vigeÅ vigÄ“re viguÄ« ---- flourish vireÅ virÄ“re viruÄ« ---- be green and others.

NOTE 2.--The following are used only in the Present System:-- aveÅ avÄ“re ---- ---- wish frÄ«geÅ frÄ«gÄ“re ---- ---- be cold immineÅ imminÄ“re ---- ---- overhang maereÅ maerÄ“re ---- ---- mourn polleÅ pollÄ“re ---- ---- be strong and others.

b. Type -eÅ, -Ä“re, -uÄ«, -tus (-sus).

cÄ“nseÅ cÄ“nsÄ“re cÄ“nsuÄ« cÄ“nsus estimate doceÅ docÄ“re docuÄ« doctus teach misceÅ miscÄ“re miscuÄ« mixtus mix teneÅ tenÄ“re tenuÄ« ---- hold So _contineÅ_ and _sustineÅ_; but-- retineÅ retinÄ“re retinuÄ« retentus retain obtineÅ obtinÄ“re obtinuÄ« obtentus maintain torreÅ torrÄ“re torruÄ« tostus bake III. PERFECT IN -SÄª.

augeÅ augÄ“re auxÄ« auctus increase torqueÅ torquÄ“re torsÄ« tortus twist indulgeÅ indulgÄ“re indulsÄ« ---- indulge lÅ«ceÅ lÅ«cÄ“re lÅ«xÄ« ---- be light lÅ«geÅ lÅ«gÄ“re lÅ«xÄ« ---- mourn jubeÅ jubÄ“re jussÄ« jussus order per-mulceÅ permulcÄ“re permulsÄ« permulsus soothe rÄ«deÅ rÄ«dÄ“re rÄ«sÄ« rÄ«sum (est) laugh suÄdeÅ suÄdÄ“re suÄsÄ« suÄsum (est) advise abs-tergeÅ abstergÄ“re abstersÄ« abstersus wipe off ÄrdeÅ ÄrdÄ“re ÄrsÄ« ÄrsÅ«rus burn haereÅ haerÄ“re haesÄ« haesÅ«rus stick maneÅ manÄ“re mÄnsÄ« mÄnsÅ«rus stay algeÅ algÄ“re alsÄ« ---- be cold fulgeÅ fulgÄ“re fulsÄ« ---- gleam urgeÅ urgÄ“re ursÄ« ---- press IV. PERFECT IN -Äª WITH REDUPLICATION.

mordeÅ mordÄ“re momordÄ« morsus bite spondeÅ spondÄ“re spopondÄ« spÅnsus promise tondeÅ tondÄ“re totondÄ« tÅnsus shear pendeÅ pendÄ“re pependÄ« ---- hang V. PERFECT IN -Äª WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

caveÅ cavÄ“re cÄvÄ« cautÅ«rus take care faveÅ favÄ“re fÄvÄ« fautÅ«rus favor foveÅ fovÄ“re fÅvÄ« fÅtus cherish moveÅ movÄ“re mÅvÄ« mÅtus move paveÅ pavÄ“re pÄvÄ« ---- fear sedeÅ sedÄ“re sÄ“dÄ« sessÅ«rus sit videÅ vidÄ“re vÄ«dÄ« vÄ«sus see voveÅ vovÄ“re vÅvÄ« vÅtus vow VI. PERFECT IN -Äª WITHOUT EITHER REDUPLICATION OR LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

ferveÅ fervÄ“re (fervÄ«, ---- boil ferbuÄ«) prandeÅ prandÄ“re prandÄ« prÄnsus (Â§ 114, lunch 2) strÄ«deÅ strÄ«dÄ“re strÄ«dÄ« ---- creak VII. DEPONENTS.

liceor licÄ“rÄ« licitus sum bid polliceor pollicÄ“rÄ« pollicitus sum promise mereor merÄ“rÄ« meritus sum earn misereor miserÄ“rÄ« miseritus sum pity vereor verÄ“rÄ« veritus sum fear fateor fatÄ“rÄ« fassus sum confess cÅnfiteor cÅnfitÄ“rÄ« cÅnfessus sum confess reor rÄ“rÄ« ratus sum think medeor medÄ“rÄ« ---- heal tueor tuÄ“rÄ« ---- protect Third (Consonant) Conjugation.

122. I. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN A CONSONANT.

1. Perfect in -sÄ«.

a. Type -Å, -Ä•re, -sÄ«, -tus.

carpÅ carpere carpsÄ« carptus pluck sculpÅ sculpere sculpsÄ« sculptus chisel rÄ“pÅ rÄ“pere rÄ“psÄ« ---- creep serpÅ serpere serpsÄ« ---- crawl scribÅ scribere scrÄ«psÄ« scrÄ«ptus write nÅ«bÅ nÅ«bere nÅ«psÄ« nÅ«pta (woman marry only) regÅ regere rÄ“xÄ« rÄ“ctus govern tegÅ tegere tÄ“xÄ« tÄ“ctus cover af-flÄ«gÅ afflÄ«gere afflÄ«xÄ« afflÄ«ctus shatter dÄ«cÅ dÄ«cere dÄ«xÄ« dictus say dÅ«cÅ dÅ«cere dÅ«xÄ« ductus lead coquÅ coquere coxÄ« coctus cook trahÅ trahere trÄxÄ« trÄctus draw vehÅ vehere vexÄ« vectus carry cingÅ cingere cÄ«nxÄ« cÄ«nctus gird tingÅ tingere tÄ«nxÄ« tÄ«nctus dip jungÅ jungere jÅ«nxÄ« jÅ«nctus join fingÅ fingere fÄ«nxÄ« fÄ«ctus would pingÅ pingere pÄ«nxÄ« pÄ«ctus paint stringÅ stringere strÄ«nxÄ« strictus bind -stinguÅ[44] -stinguere -stÄ«nxÄ« -stÄ«nctus blot out unguÅ unguere Å«nxÄ« Å«nctus anoint vÄ«vÅ vÄ«vere vÄ«xÄ« vÄ«ctum (est) live gerÅ gerere gessÄ« gestus carry urÅ Å«rere ussÄ« Å«stus burn temnÅ temnere con-tempsÄ« con-temptus despise b. Type -Å, -Ä•re, -sÄ«, -sus.

fÄ«gÅ fÄ«gere fÄ«xÄ« fÄ«xus fasten mergÅ mergere mersÄ« mersus sink spargÅ spargere sparsÄ« sparsus scatter flectÅ flectere flexÄ« flexus bend nectÅ nectere nexuÄ« nexus twine (nexÄ«) mittÅ mittere mÄ«sÄ« missus send rÄdÅ rÄdere rÄsÄ« rÄsus shave rÅdÅ rÅdere rÅsÄ« rÅsus gnaw vÄdÅ vÄdere -vÄsÄ«[45] -vÄsum march, walk (est)[45] lÅ«dÅ lÅ«dere lÅ«sÄ« lÅ«sum (est) play trÅ«dÅ trÅ«dere trÅ«sÄ« trÅ«sus push laedÅ laedere laesÄ« laesus injure, hurt claudÅ claudere clausÄ« clausus close plaudÅ plaudere plausÄ« plausum (est) clap explÅdÅ explÅdere explÅsÄ« explÅsus hoot off cÄ“dÅ cÄ“dere cessÄ« cessum (est) withdraw dÄ«vidÅ dÄ«videre dÄ«vÄ«sÄ« dÄ«vÄ«sus divide premÅ premere pressÄ« pressus press 2. Perfect in -Ä« with Reduplication.

ab-dÅ abdere abdidÄ« abditus conceal red-dÅ red-dere reddidÄ« redditus return So _addÅ_, _condÅ_, _dÄ“dÅ_, _perdÅ_, _prÅdÅ_, _trÄdÅ_, etc. cÅn-sistÅ cÅnsistere cÅnstitÄ« ---- _take one's stand_ resistÅ resistere restitÄ« ---- resist circumsistÅ circumsistere circumstetÄ« ---- surround cadÅ cadere cecidÄ« cÄsÅ«rus fall caedÅ caedere cecÄ«dÄ« caesus kill pendÅ pendere pependÄ« pÄ“nsus weigh, pay tendÅ tendere tetendÄ« tentus stretch tundÅ tundere tutudÄ« tÅ«sus, tÅ«nsus beat fallÅ fallere fefellÄ« (falsus, as deceive Adj.) pellÅ pellere pepulÄ« pulsus drive out currÅ currere cucurrÄ« cursum (est) run parcÅ parcere pepercÄ« parsÅ«rus spare canÅ canere cecinÄ« ---- sing tangÅ tangere tetigÄ« tÄctus touch pungÅ pungere pupugÄ« pÅ«nctus prick NOTE.--In the following verbs the perfects were originally reduplicated, but have lost the reduplicating syllable:-- per-cellÅ percellere perculÄ« perculsus strike down findÅ findere fidÄ« fissus split scindÅ scindere scidÄ« scissus tear apart tollÅ tollere sus-tulÄ« sublÄtus remove 3. Perfect in -Ä« with Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

agÅ agere Ä“gÄ« Äctus drive, do peragÅ peragere perÄ“gÄ« perÄctus finish subigÅ subigere subÄ“gÄ« subÄctus subdue cÅgÅ cÅgere coÄ“gÄ« coÄctus force, gather frangÅ frangere frÄ“gÄ« frÄctus break perfringÅ perfringere perfrÄ“gÄ« perfrÄctus break down legÅ legere lÄ“gÄ« lÄ“ctus gather, read perlegÅ perlegere perlÄ“gÄ« perlÄ“ctus read through colligÅ colligere collÄ“gÄ« collÄ“ctus collect dÄ“ligÅ dÄ“ligere dÄ“lÄ“gÄ« dÄ“lÄ“ctus choose dÄ«ligÅ dÄ«ligere dÄ«lÄ“xÄ« dÄ«lÄ“ctus love intellegÅ intellegere intellÄ“xÄ« intellÄ“ctus understand neglegÅ neglegere neglÄ“xÄ« neglÄ“ctus neglect emÅ emere Ä“mÄ« Ä“mptus buy coÃ«mÅ coÃ«mere coÄ“mÄ« coÄ“mptus buy up redimÅ redimere redÄ“mÄ« redÄ“mptus buy back dirimÅ dirimere dirÄ“mÄ« dirÄ“mptus destroy dÄ“mÅ dÄ“mere dÄ“mpsÄ« dÄ“mptus take away sÅ«mÅ sÅ«mere sÅ«mpsÄ« sÅ«mptus take prÅmÅ prÅmere prÅmpsÄ« (prÅmptus, as take out Adj.) vincÅ vincere vÄ«cÄ« victus conquer re-linquÅ relinquere relÄ«quÄ« relÄ«ctus leave rumpÅ rumpere rÅ«pÄ« ruptus break edÅ Ä“sse (Â§ Ä“dÄ« Ä“sus eat 128) fundÅ fundere fÅ«dÄ« fÅ«sus four 4. Perfect in -Ä« without either Reduplication or Lengthening of Stem Vowel.

excÅ«dÅ excÅ«dere excÅ«dÄ« excÅ«sus hammer cÅnsÄ«dÅ cÅnsÄ«dere cÅnsÄ“dÄ« ---- _take one's seat_ possÄ«dÅ possÄ«dere possÄ“dÄ« possessus take possession accendÅ accendere accendÄ« accÄ“nsus kindle a-scendÅ ascendere ascendÄ« ascÄ“nsum (est) climb dÄ“-fendÅ dÄ“fendere dÄ“fendÄ« dÄ“fÄ“nsus defend pre-hendÅ prehendere prehendÄ« prehÄ“nsus seize Ä«cÅ Ä«cere Ä«cÄ« ictus strike vellÅ vellere vellÄ« vulsus pluck vertÅ vertere vertÄ« versus turn pandÅ pandere pandÄ« passus spread solvÅ solvere solvÄ« solÅ«tus loose vÄ«sÅ vÄ«sere vÄ«sÄ« vÄ«sus visit volvÅ volvere volvÄ« volÅ«tus roll verrÅ verrere verrÄ« versus sweep 5. Perfect in -uÄ«.

in-cumbÅ incumbere incubuÄ« incubitÅ«rus lean on gignÅ gignere genuÄ« genitus bring forth molÅ molere moluÄ« molitus grind vomÅ vomere vomuÄ« vomitus vomit fremÅ fremere fremuÄ« ---- snort gemÅ gemere gemuÄ« ---- sigh metÅ metere messuÄ« messus reap tremÅ tremere tremuÄ« ---- tremble strepÅ strepere strepuÄ« ---- rattle alÅ alete aluÄ« altus (alitus) nourish colÅ colere coluÄ« cultus cultivate incolÅ incolere incoluÄ« ---- inhabit excolÅ excolere excoluÄ« excultus perfect cÅnsulÅ cÅnsulere cÅnsuluÄ« cÅnsultus consult cÅnserÅ cÅnserere cÅnseruÄ« cÅnsertus join dÄ“serÅ dÄ“serere dÄ“seruÄ« dÄ“sertus desert disserÅ disserere disseruÄ« ---- discourse texÅ texere texuÄ« textus weave 6. Perfect in -vÄ«.

sinÅ sinere sÄ«vÄ« situs allow desinÅ dÄ“sinere dÄ“siÄ« dÄ“situs cease ponÅ pÅnere posuÄ« positus place ob-linÅ oblinere oblÄ“vÄ« oblitus smear serÅ serere sÄ“vÄ« satus sow cÅnserÅ cÅnserere cÅnsÄ“vÄ« cÅnsitus plant cernÅ cernere ---- ---- separate discernÅ discernere discrÄ“vÄ« discrÄ“tus distinguish dÄ“cernÅ dÄ“cernere dÄ“crÄ“vÄ« dÄ“crÄ“tus decide spernÅ spernere sprÄ“vÄ« sprÄ“tus scorn sternÅ sternere strÄvÄ« strÄtus spread prÅ-sternÅ prÅsternere prÅstrÄvÄ« prÅstrÄtus overthrow petÅ petere petÄ«vÄ« petÄ«tus seek (petiÄ«) appetÅ appetere appetÄ«vÄ« appetÄ«tus long for terÅ terere trÄ«vÄ« trÄ«tus rub quaerÅ quaerere quaesÄ«vÄ« quaesÄ«tus seek acquÄ«rÅ acquÄ«rere acquÄ«sÄ«vÄ« acquÄ«sÄ«tus acquire arcessÅ arcessere arcessÄ«vÄ« arcessÄ«tus summon capessÅ capessere capessÄ«vÄ« capessÄ«tus seize lacessÅ lacessere lacessÄ«vÄ« lacessÄ«tus provoke 7. Used only in Present System.

angÅ angere ---- ---- choke lambÅ lambere ---- ---- lick claudÅ claudere ---- ---- be lame furÅ furere ---- ---- rave vergÅ vergere ---- ---- bend and a few others.

II. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -U.

induÅ induere induÄ« indÅ«tus put on imbuÅ imbuere imbuÄ« imbÅ«tus moisten luÅ luere luÄ« ---- wash polluÅ polluere polluÄ« pollÅ«tus defile minuÅ minuere minuÄ« minÅ«tus lessen statuÅ statuere statuÄ« statÅ«tus set up cÅnstituÅ cÅnstituere cÅnstituÄ« cÅnstitÅ«tus determine suÅ suere suÄ« sÅ«tus sew tribuÅ tribuere tribuÄ« tribÅ«tus allot ruÅ ruere ruÄ« ruitÅ«rus fall dÄ«ruÅ dÄ«ruere dÄ«ruÄ« dÄ«rutus destroy obruÅ obruere obruÄ« obrutus overwhelm acuÅ acuere acuÄ« ---- sharpen arguÅ arguere arguÄ« ---- accuse congruÅ congruere congruÄ« ---- agree metuÅ metuere metuÄ« ---- fear ab-nuÅ abnuere abnuÄ« ---- decline re-spuÅ respuere respuÄ« ---- reject struÅ struere strÅ«xÄ« strÅ«ctus build fluÅ fluere flÅ«xi (flÅ«xus, as flow Adj.)

III. VERBS WITH PRESENT STEM ENDING IN -I.

capiÅ cupere cupÄ«vÄ« cupÄ«tus wish sapiÅ sapere sapÄ«vÄ« ---- taste rapiÅ rapere rapuÄ« raptus snatch dÄ«ripiÅ dÄ«ripere dÄ«ripuÄ« dÄ«reptus plunder cÅnspiciÅ cÅnspicere cÅnspexÄ« cÅnspectus gaze at aspiciÅ aspicere aspexÄ« aspectus behold illiciÅ illicere illexÄ« illectus allure pelliciÅ pellicere pellexÄ« pellectus allure Ä“liciÅ Ä“licere Ä“licuÄ« Ä“licitus elicit quatiÅ quatere ---- quassus shake concutiÅ concutere concussÄ« concussus shake pariÅ parere peperÄ« partus bring forth capiÅ capere cÄ“pÄ« captus take accipiÅ accipere accÄ“pÄ« acceptus accept incipiÅ incipere incÄ“pÄ« inceptus begin faciÅ facere fÄ“cÄ« factus make afficiÅ afficere affÄ“cÄ« affectus affect Passive, afficior, afficÄ«, affectus sum. So other prepositional compounds, _perficiÅ_, _perficior_; _interficiÅ_, _interficior_; etc. But-- assuÄ“faciÅ assuÄ“facere assuÄ“fÄ“cÄ« assuÄ“factus accustom Passive, assuÄ“fiÅ, assuÄ“fieri, assuÄ“factus sum. So also _patefaciÅ_, _patefÄ«Å_; _calefaciÅ_, _calefÄ«Å_; and all non-prepositional compounds. jaciÅ jacere jÄ“cÄ« jactus hurl abiciÅ abicere abjÄ“cÄ« abjectus throw away fodiÅ fodere fÅdÄ« fossus dig fugiÅ fugere fÅ«gÄ« fugitÅ«rus flee effugiÅ effugere effÅ«gÄ« ---- escape IV. VERBS IN -SCÅŒ.

1. Verbs in -scÅ from Simple Roots.

poscÅ poscere poposcÄ« ---- demand discÅ discere didicÄ« ---- learn pÄscÅ pÄscere pÄvÄ« pÄstus feed pÄscor pÄscÄ« pÄstus sum graze crÄ“scÅ crÄ“scere crÄ“vÄ« crÄ“tus grow cÅnsuÄ“scÅ cÅnsuÄ“scere cÅnsuÄ“vÄ« cÅnsuÄ“tus _accustom one's self_ quiÄ“scÅ quiÄ“scere quiÄ“vÄ« quiÄ“tÅ«rus be still adolÄ“scÅ adolÄ“scere adolÄ“vi adultus grow up obsolÄ“scÅ obsolÄ“scerÄ“ obsolÄ“vÄ« ---- grow old nÅscÅ nÅscere nÅvÄ« ---- become acquainted with ignÅscÅ ignÅscere ignÅvÄ« ignÅtÅ«rus pardon agnÅscÅ agnÅscere agnÅvÄ« agnitus recognize cognÅscÅ cognÅscere cognÅvÄ« cognitus get acquainted with 2. Verbs in -scÅ formed from other Verbs.

These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see Â§ 155, 1). When they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from which they are derived.

flÅrÄ“scÅ flÅrÄ“scere flÅruÄ« _begin to (flÅreÅ) bloom_ scÄ«scÅ scÄ«scere scÄ«vÄ« enact (scÄ«o) ÄrÄ“scÅ ÄrÄ“scere ÄruÄ« become dry (ÄreÅ) calÄ“scÅ calÄ“scere caluÄ« become hot (caleÅ) cÅnsenÄ“scÅ cÅnsenÄ“scere cÅnsenuÄ« grow old (seneÅ) extimÄ“scÅ extimÄ“scere extimuÄ« fear greatly (timeÅ) ingemÄ«scÅ ingemÄ«scere ingemuÄ« sigh (gemÅ) adhaerÄ“scÅ adhaerÄ“scere adhaesÄ« stick (haereÅ)

3. Verbs in -scÅ derived from Adjectives, usually with Inchoative meaning.

obdÅ«rÄ“scÅ obdÅ«rÄ“scere obdÅ«ruÄ« grow hard (dÅ«rus) Ä“vanÄ“scÅ Ä“vanÄ“scere Ä“vinuÄ« disappear (vÄnus) percrÄ“brÄ“sco percrÄ“brÄ“scere percrÄ“bruÄ« grow fresh (crÄ“ber) mÄtÅ«rescÅ mÄtÅ«rÄ“scere mÄtÅ«ruÄ« grow ripe (mÄtÅ«rus) obmÅ«tÄ“scÅ obmÅ«tÄ“scere obmÅ«tuÄ« grow dumb (mÅ«tus)

V. DEPONENTS.

fungor fungi fÅ«nctus sum perform queror querÄ« questus sum complain loquor loquÄ« locÅ«tus sum speak sequor sequÄ« secÅ«tus sum follow fruor fruÄ« fruitÅ«rus enjoy perfruor perfruÄ« perfrÅ«ctus sum thoroughly enjoy lÄbor lÄbi lÄpsus sum glide amplector amplectÄ« amplexus sum embrace nÄ«tor nÄ«tÄ« nÄ«sus sum, strive nÄ«xus sum gradior gradÄ« gressus sum walk patior patÄ« passus sum suffer perpetior perpetÄ« perpessus sum endure Å«tor Å«tÄ« Å«sus sum use morior morÄ« mortuus sum die adipÄ«scor adipÄ«scÄ« adeptus sum acquire comminÄ«scor comminÄ«scÄ« commentus sum invent reminÄ«scor reminÄ«scÄ« ---- remember nancÄ«scor nancÄ«scÄ« nanctus acquire (nactus) sum nÄscor nÄscÄ« nÄtus sum be born oblÄ«vÄ«scor oblÄ«vÄ«scÄ« oblÄ«tus sum forget pacÄ«scor pacÄ«scÄ« pactus sum covenant proficÄ«scor proficÄ«scÄ« profectus sum set out ulcÄ«scor ulcÄ«scÄ« ultus sum avenge Ä«rÄscor Ä«rÄscÄ« (Ä«rÄtus, as be angry Adj.) vescor vescÄ« ---- eat Fourth Conjugation.

123. I. PERFECT ENDS IN -VÄª.

audiÅ audÄ«re audÄ«vÄ« audÄ«tus hear So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation. sepeliÅ sepelÄ«re sepelÄ«vÄ« sepultus bury II. PERFECT ENDS IN -UÄª.

aperiÅ aperÄ«re aperuÄ« apertus open operiÅ operÄ«re operuÄ« opertus cover saliÅ salÄ«re saluÄ« ---- leap III. PERFECT ENDS IN -SÄª.

saepiÅ saepÄ«re saepsÄ« saeptus hedge in sanciÅ sancÄ«re sÄnxÄ« sÄnctus ratify vinciÅ vincÄ«re vinxÄ« vinctus bind amiciÅ amicÄ«re ---- amictus envelop fulciÅ fulcÄ«re fulsÄ« fultus prop up referciÅ refercÄ«re refersÄ« refertus fill sarciÅ sarcÄ«re sarsÄ« sartus patch hauriÅ haurÄ«re hausÄ« haustus draw sentiÅ sentÄ«re sÄ“nsÄ« sÄ“nsus feel IV. PERFECT IN -Äª WITH LENGTHENING OF STEM VOWEL.

veniÅ venÄ«re vÄ“nÄ« ventum (est) come adveniÅ advenÄ«re advÄ“nÄ« adventum (est) arrive inveniÅ invenÄ«re invÄ“nÄ« inventus find V. PERFECT WITH LOSS OF REDUPLICATION.

reperiÅ reperÄ«re repperÄ« repertus find comperiÅ comperÄ«re comperÄ« compertus learn VI. USED ONLY IN THE PRESENT.

feriÅ ferÄ«re ---- ---- strike Ä“suriÅ Ä“surÄ«re ---- ---- be hungry VII. DEPONENTS.

largior largÄ«rÄ« largÄ«tus sum bestow So many others. experior experÄ«rÄ« expertus sum try opperior opperÄ«rÄ« oppertus sum await Årdior ÅrdÄ«rÄ« Årsus sum begin orior orÄ«rÄ« ortus sum arise Orior usually follows the Third Conjugation in its inflection; as oreris, _orÄtur_, _orÄmur_; orerer (Imp. Subj.); orere (Imper.). mÄ“tior mÄ“tÄ«rÄ« mÄ“nsus sum measure assentior assentÄ«rÄ« assÄ“nsus sum assent * * * * *

IRREGULAR VERBS.

124. A number of Verbs are called Irregular. The most important are sum, dÅ, edÅ, ferÅ, volÅ, nÅlÅ, mÄlÅ, eÅ, fÄ«Å. The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the personal endings in many forms directly to the stem, instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d Sing. of fer-Å), instead of fer-i-s. They are but the relics of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs.

125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various compounds are inflected in the same way. They are--

absum abesse ÄfuÄ« am absent _Pres. Partic_. absÄ“ns (absentis), absent. adsum adesse adfuÄ« am present dÄ“sum deesse dÄ“fuÄ« am lacking insum inesse Ä«nfuÄ« am in intersum interesse interfuÄ« am among praesum praeesse praefuÄ« am in charge of _Pres. Partic_. praesÄ“ns (praesentis), present obsum obesse obfuÄ« hinder prÅsum prÅdesse prÅfuÄ« am of advantage subsum subesse subfuÄ« am underneath supersum superesse superfuÄ« am left NOTE.--PrÅsum is compounded of prÅd (earlier form of prÅ) and sum; the d disappears before consonants, as prÅsumus; but prÅdestis.

126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote, able) and sum; potuÄ« is from an obsolete potÄ“re.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. possum, posse, potuÄ«, to be able.

INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Pres._ possum, potes, potest; possumus, potestis, possunt. _Imp._ poteram; poterÄmus. _Fut._ poterÅ; poterimus. _Perf._ potuÄ«; potuimus. _Plup._ potueram; potuerÄmus. _Fut. P._ potuerÅ; potuerimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Pres._ possim, possÄ«s, possit; possÄ«mus, possÄ«tis, possint. _Imp._ possem; possÄ“mus. _Perf._ potuerim; potuerÄ«mus. _Plup._ potuissem; potuissÄ“mus.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ posse. _Pres._ potÄ“ns (_as an adjective_). _Perf._ potuisse.

127. DÅ, I give.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. dÅ, dÄƒre, dedÄ«, dÄƒtus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Pres._ dÅ, dÄs, dat; dÄƒmus, dÄƒtis, dant. _Imp._ dÄƒbam, etc.; dÄƒbÄmus. _Fut._ dÄƒbÅ, etc.; dÄƒbimus. _Perf._ dedÄ«; dedimus. _Plup._ dederam; dederÄmus. _Fut. P._ dederÅ; dederimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE _Pres._ dem; dÄ“mus. _Imp._ dÄƒrem; dÄƒrÄ“mus. _Perf._ dederim; dederÄ«mus. _Plup._ dedissem; dedissÄ“mus.

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ dÄ; dÄƒte. _Fut._ dÄƒtÅ; dÄƒtÅte. dÄƒtÅ. dantÅ.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ dÄƒre. dÄns. _Perf._ dedisse. _Fut._ dÄƒtÅ«rus esse. dÄƒtÅ«rus.

GERUND. SUPINE. dandÄ«, etc. dÄƒtum, dÄƒtÅ«.

1. The passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus: dÄƒrÄ«, dÄƒtur, dÄƒrÄ“tur, etc.

2. The archaic and poetic Present Subjunctive forms duim, duint, perduit, perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of similar meaning.

128. EdÅ, I eat.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. edÅ, Ä“sse, Ä“dÄ«, Ä“sus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD. _Pres._ edÅ, edimus, Ä“s, Ä“stis, Ä“st; edunt.

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Imp._ Ä“ssem, Ä“ssÄ“mus, Ä“ssÄ“s, Ä“ssÄ“tis, Ä“sset; Ä“ssent.

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ Ä“s; Ä“ste. _Fut._ Ä“stÅ; Ä“stÅte. Ä“stÅ; eduntÅ.

INFINITIVE. _Pres._ Ä“sse.

Passive Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD. _Pres. 3d Sing_. Ä“stur.

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Imp. 3d Sing_. Ä“ssÄ“tur.

1. Observe the long vowel of the forms in Ä“s-, which alone distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be.

2. Note comedÅ, comÄ“sse, comÄ“dÄ«, comÄ“sus or comÄ“stus, consume.

3. The Present Subjunctive has edim, -Ä«s, -it, etc., less often edam, -Äs, etc.

129. FerÅ, I bear.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. ferÅ, ferre, tulÄ«, lÄtus.

Active Voice.

INDICATIVE MOOD. PLURAL. SINGULAR. _Pres._ ferÅ, fers, fert; ferimus, fertis, ferunt.[46] _Imp._ ferÄ“bam; ferÄ“bÄmus. _Fut._ feram; ferÄ“mus. _Perf._ tulÄ«; tulimus. _Plup._ tuleram; tulerÄmus. _Fut. P._ tulerÅ; tulerimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres._ feram; ferÄmus. _Imp._ ferrem; ferrÄ“mus. _Perf._ tulerim; tulerÄ«mus. _Plup._ tulissem; tulissÄ“mus.

IMPERATIVE _Pres._ fer; ferte. _Fut._ fertÅ; fertÅte. fertÅ; feruntÅ.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ ferre. _Pres._ ferÄ“ns. _Perf._ tulisse. _Fut._ lÄtÅ«rus esse. _Fut._ lÄtÅ«rus.

GERUND. SUPINE. _Gen._ ferendÄ«. _Dat._ ferendÅ. _Acc._ ferendum. _Acc._ lÄtum. _Abl._ ferendÅ. _Abl._ lÄtÅ«.

Passive Voice. feror, ferrÄ«, lÄtus sum, to be borne.

INDICATIVE MOOD. PLURAL. SINGULAR. _Pres._ feror, ferris, fertur; ferimur, feriminÄ«, feruntur. _Imp._ ferÄ“bar; ferÄ“bÄmur. _Fut._ ferar; ferÄ“mur. _Perf._ lÄtus sum; lÄtÄ« sumus. _Plup._ lÄtus eram; lÄtÄ« erÄmus. _Fut. P._ lÄtus erÅ; lÄtÄ« erimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres._ ferar; ferÄmur. _Imp._ ferrer; ferrÄ“mur. _Perf._ lÄtus sim; lÄtÄ« sÄ«mus. _Plup._ lÄtus essem; lÄtÄ« essÄ“mus.

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ ferre; ferimimÄ«. _Fut._ fertor; ---- fertor; feruntor.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ ferrÄ«. _Perf._ lÄtus esse. _Perf._ lÄtus. _Fut._ lÄtum Ä«rÄ«. _Fut._ ferendus.

So also the Compounds--

afferÅ afferre attulÄ« allÄtus bring toward auferÅ auferre abstulÄ« ablÄtus take away cÅnferÅ cÅnferre contulÄ« collÄtus compare differÅ differre distulÄ« dÄ«lÄtus put off efferÅ efferre extulÄ« Ä“lÄtus carry out Ä«nferÅ Ä«nferre intulÄ« illÄtus bring against offerÅ offerre obtulÄ« oblÄtus present referÅ referre rettulÄ« relÄtus bring back NOTE.--The forms sustulÄ« and sublÄtus belong to tollÅ.

130. volÅ, nÅlÅ, mÄlÅ.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. volÅ, velle, voluÄ«, _to wish._ nÅlÅ, nÅlle, nÅluÄ«, _to be unwilling._ mÄlÅ, mÄlle, mÄluÄ«, _to prefer._

INDICATIVE MOOD. _Pres._ volÅ, nÅlÅ, mÄlÅ, vÄ«s, nÅn vÄ«s, mÄvÄ«s, vult; nÅn vult; mÄvult; volumus, nÅlumus, mÄlumus, vultis, nÅn vultis, mÄvultis, volunt. nÅlunt. mÄlunt. _Imp._ volÄ“bam. nÅlÄ“bam. mÄlÄ“bam. _Fut._ volam. nÅlam. mÄlam. _Perf._ voluÄ«. nÅluÄ«. mÄluÄ«. _Plup._ volueram. nÅlueram. mÄlueram. _Fut. P._ voluerÅ. nÅluerÅ. mÄluerÅ.

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres._ velim, -Ä«s, -it, nÅlim. mÄlÄ«m. etc. _Inf._ vellem, -Ä“s, -et, nÅllem. mÄllem. etc. _Perf._ voluerim. nÅluerim. mÄluerim. _Pluf._ voluissem. nÅluissem. mÄluissem.

IMPERATIVE.

_Pres._ nÅlÄ«; nÅlÄ«te. _Fut._ nÅlÄ«tÅ; nÅlÄ«tÅte. nÅlÄ«tÅ; nÅluntÅ.

INFINITIVE. _Pres._ velle. nÅlle. mÄlle. _Perf._ voluisse. nÅluisse. mÄluisse

PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ volÄ“ns nÅlÄ“ns. ----

131. FÄ«Å.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. fÄ«Å, fÄ«erÄ«, factus sum, to become, be made.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR, PLURAL. _Pres._ fÄ«Å, fÄ«s, fit; fÄ«mus, fÄ«tis, fÄ«unt. _Inf._ fÄ«Ä“bam; fÄ«Ä“bÄmus. _Fut._ fÄ«am; fÄ«Ä“mus. _Perf._ factus sum; factÄ« sumus. _Pluf._ factus eram; factÄ« erÄmus. _Fut. P._ factus erÅ; factÄ« erimus.

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Pres._ fÄ«am; fÄ«Ämus. _Imp._ fierem; fierÄ“mus. _Perf._ factus sim; factÄ« sÄ«mus. _Plup._ factus essem; factÄ« essÄ“mus.

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ fÄ«; fÄ«te. PARTICIPLE. INFINITIVE. _Pres._ fierÄ«. _Perf._ factus esse. _Perf._ factus. _Fut._ factum Ä«rÄ«. _Ger._ faciendus.

NOTE.--A few isolated forms of compounds of fÄ«Å occur; as, dÄ“fit _lacks_; Ä«nfit, begins.

132. EÅ.

PRINCIPAL PARTS. eÅ, Ä«re, Ä«vÄ«, itum (est), to go.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Pres._ eÅ, Ä«s, it; Ä«mus, Ä«tis, eunt. _Imp._ Ä«bam; Ä«bÄmus. _Fut._ Ä«bÅ; Ä«bimus. _Perf._ Ä«vÄ« (iÄ«); Ä«vimus (iimus). _Plup._ Ä«veram (ieram); Ä«verÄmus (ierÄmus) _Fut. P._ Ä«verÅ (ierÅ); Ä«verimus (ierimus).

SUBJUNCTIVE.

SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Pres._ eam; eÄmus. _Inf._ Ä«rem; Ä«rÄ“mus. _Perf._ Ä«verim (ierim); Ä«verÄ«mus (ierÄ«mus). _Pluf._ Ä«vissem (iissem, Ä«ssem); Ä«vissÄ“mus (iissÄ“mus, Ä«ssÄ“mus).

IMPERATIVE. _Pres._ Ä«; Ä«te. _Fut._ Ä«tÅ; Ä«tÅte, Ä«tÅ; euntÅ.

INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. _Pres._ Ä«re. _Pres._ iÄ“ns. _Perf._ Ä«visse (Ä«sse). (_Gen._ euntis.) _Fut._ itÅ«rus esse. _Fut._ itÅ«rus. Gerundive, eundum.

GERUND. SUPINE. eundÄ«, etc. itum, itÅ«.

1. Transitive compounds of eÅ admit the full Passive inflection; as adeor, adÄ«ris, adÄ«tur, etc.

* * * * *

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are the most important:--

133. USED MAINLY IN THE PERFECT SYSTEM.

CoepÄ«, MeminÄ«, ÅŒdÄ«, _I have I remember. I hate. begun._

INDICATIVE MOOD. _Perf._ coepÄ«. meminÄ«. ÅdÄ«. _Plup._ coeperam. memineram. Åderam. _Fut. P._ coeperÅ. meminerÅ. ÅderÅ.

SUBJUNCTIVE. _Perf._ coeperim. meminerim. Åderim. _Pluf._ coepissem. meminissem. Ådissem.

IMPERATIVE. _Sing._ mementÅ; _Plur._ mementÅte.

INFINITIVE. _Perf._ coepisse. meminisse. Ådisse. _Fut._ coeptÅ«rus esse. ÅsÅ«rus esse.

PARTICIPLE. _Perf._ coeptus, begun. Åsus. _Fut._ coeptÅ«rus. ÅsÅ«rus.

1. When coepÄ« governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the form coeptus est; as, amÄrÄ« coeptus est, he began to be loved.

2. Note that meminÄ« and ÅdÄ«, though Perfect in form, are Present in sense. Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force of the Imperfect and Future; as, memineram, _I remembered_; ÅderÅ, I shall hate.

134. Inquam, I say (inserted between words of a direct quotation)

INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Pres._ inquam, ---- inquis, ---- inquit; inquiunt. _Fut._ ---- ---- inquiÄ“s, ---- inquiet. ---- _Perf. 3d Sing._ inquit.

135. AjÅ, I say.

INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL _Pres._ ajÅ, ---- aÄ«s, ---- ait; ajunt. _Imp._ ajÄ“bam, ajÄ“bÄmus, ajÄ“bÄs, ajÄ“bÄtis, ajÄ“bat; ajÄ“bant. _Perf 3d Sing._ aÃ¯t.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

_Pres 3d Sing._ ajat.

NOTE.--For aÄ«sne, _do you mean?_ aÄ«n is common.

136. FÄrÄ«, _to speak._

This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present System it has--

INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. _Pres._ ---- ---- ---- ---- fÄtur. ---- _Fut._ fÄbor, ---- ---- ---- fÄbitur. ---- _Impv._ fÄre. _Inf._ fÄrÄ«. _Pres. fantis, fantÄ«, etc. Partic._ Gerund, fandÄ«; _D. and Abl._, fandÅ. _G._, Gerundive, fandus.

NOTE.--Forms of fÄrÄ« are rare. More frequent are its compounds; as,-- affÄtur, _he addresses_; praefÄmur, _we say in advance._

137. OTHER DEFECTIVE FORMS.

1. QueÅ, quÄ«re, quÄ«vÄ«, to be able, and nequeÅ, nequÄ«re, nequÄ«vÄ«, to be unable, are inflected like eÅ, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense, and there only in special forms.

2. QuaesÅ, _I entreat_; quaesumus, we entreat.

3. Cedo (2d sing. Impv.), cette (2d plu.); give me, tell me.

4. SalvÄ“, salvÄ“te, hail. Also Infinitive, salvÄ“re.

5. HavÄ“ (avÄ“), havÄ“te, hail. Also Infinitive, havÄ“re.

* * * * *

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, _it snows, it seems, etc._ They have no personal subject, but may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun; as, mÄ“ pudet hÅc fÄ“cisse, lit. _it shames me to have done this_; hÅc decet, this is fitting. Here belong--

I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather; as,--

fulget fulsit it lightens tonat tonuit it thunders grandinat ---- it hails ningit ninxit it snows pluit pluit it rains II. Special Verbs.

paenitet paenitÄ“re paenituit it repents piget pigÄ“re piguit it grieves pudet pudÄ“re puduit it causes shame taedet taedÄ“re taeduit it disgusts miseret miserÄ“re miseruit it causes pity libet libÄ“re libuit it pleases licet licÄ“re licuit it is lawful oportet oportÄ“re oportuit it is fitting decet decÄ“re decuit it is becoming dÄ“decet dÄ“decÄ“re dÄ“decuit it is unbecoming rÄ“fert rÄ“ferre rÄ“tulit it concerns III. Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses.

cÅnstat cÅnstÄre cÅnstitit it is evident praestat praestÄre praestitit it is better juvat juvÄre jÅ«vit it delights appÄret appÄrÄ“re appÄruit it appears placet placÄ“re placuit it pleases (placitum est) accÄ“dit accÄ“dere accessit it is added accidit accidere accidit it happens contingit contingere contigit it happens Ä“venit Ä“venÄ«re Ä“vÄ“nit it turns out interest interesse interfuit it concerns IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs; as,--

Ä«tur lit. it is gone _i.e. some one goes_ curritur lit. it is run _i.e. some one runs_ ventum est lit. it has been come _i.e. some one has come_ veniendum est lit. it must be come _i.e. somebody must come_ pugnÄrÄ« potest lit. it can be fought _i.e. somebody can fight_

* * * * *

PART III.

* * * * *

PARTICLES.

* * * * *

139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not admit of inflection; viz. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections.

ADVERBS.

140. Adverbs denote manner, place, time, or degree Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage. The common adverbial terminations have already been given above (Â§ 76). The following TABLE OF CORRELATIVES is important:--

RELATIVE AND DEMONSTRATIVE. INDEFINITE. INTERROGATIVE. ubi, _where; where_? hÄ«c, here. alicubÄ«, Å«squam, ibi, illÄ«c, istÄ«c, Å«spiam, somewhere. there. quÅ, _whither; hÅ«c, hither. aliquÅ, _to some whither_? eÅ, istÅ«c, illÅ«c, place_. thither. unde, _whence; hinc, hence. alicunde, _from whence_? inde, istinc, illinc, somewhere_. thence. quÄ, _where; where_? hÄc, by this way. aliquÄ, by some way. eÄ, istÄc, illÄc, by that way. cum, when. nunc, now. aliquandÅ, umquam, quandÅ, _when_? tum, tunc, then. sometime, ever. quotiÄ“ns, _as often totiÄ“ns, so often. aliquotiÄ“ns, _some as_; _how often_? number of times_. quam, _as much as_; tam, so much. aliquantum, _how much_? somewhat.

PREPOSITIONS.

141. Prepositions show relations of words. The following Prepositions govern the Accusative:--

ad, to. contrÄ, against. post, after. adversus, ergÄ, toward. praeter, past. against. extrÄ, outside. prope, near. adversum, toward, Ä«nfrÄ, below. propter, _on account against. inter, between. of_. ante, before. intrÄ, within. secundum, after. apud, with, jÅ«xtÄ, near. subter, beneath. near. ob, _on account super, over. circÄ, around. of_. suprÄ, above. circiter, about. penes, _in the hands trÄns, across. circum, around. of_. ultrÄ, beyond. cis, _this side per, through. versus, toward. of_. pÅne, behind. citrÄ, this side of.

1. Åªsque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of _even_; as,--

Å«sque ad urbem, even to the city.

2. Versus always follows its case; as,--

RÅmam versus, toward Rome.

It may be combined with a preceding Preposition; as,--

ad urbem versus, toward the city.

3. Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Superlatives proximus, proximÄ“, sometimes govern the Accusative; as,--

UbiÄ« proximÄ“ RhÄ“num incolunt, _the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine_; propius castra hostium, nearer the camp of the enemy.

142. The following Prepositions govern the Ablative:--

Ä, ab, abs, from, cum, with. prÅ, in front of, by. dÄ“, from, for. absque, without. concerning. sine, without. cÅram, _in the Ä“, ex, _from out tenus, up to. presence of_. of_. prae, before.

1. Ä€, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used; before consonants we find sometimes Ä, sometimes ab (the latter usually not before the labials b, p, f, v, m; nor before c, g, q, or t); abs occurs only before tÄ“, and Ä is admissible even there.

2. Ä’, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used; before consonants we find sometimes Ä“, sometimes ex.

3. Tenus regularly follows its case, as, pectoribus tenus, up to the breast. It sometimes governs the Genitive, as, labrÅrum tenus, as far as the lips.

4. Cum is appended to the Pronouns of the First and Second Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun; usually also to the Relative and Interrogative. Thus:--

mÄ“cum nÅbÄ«scum quÅcum or cum quÅ tÄ“cum vÅbÄ«scum quÄcum or cum quÄ sÄ“cum quibuscum or cum quibus On quÄ«cum, see Â§ 89, Footnote 27.

143. Two Prepositions, in, in, into, and sub, under, govern both the Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion; with the Ablative, rest; as,--

in urbem, _into the city_; in urbe, in the city.

1. Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the Ablative.

144. RELATION OF ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.

1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still retain their adverbial meaning; as, post, _afterwards_; ante, _previously_; contrÄ, on the other hand, etc.

2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally employed as prepositions; as,--

clam, prÄ«diÄ“, with the Accusative. procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative.

3. AnÃ¡strophe. A Preposition sometimes follows its case. This is called AnÃ¡strophe; as,--

eÄ«, quÅs inter erat, those among whom he was.

Anastrophe occurs chiefly with dissyllabic prepositions.

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

145. 1. Conjunctions are used to connect ideas. For CoÃ¶rdinate Conjunctions, see Â§Â§ 341 ff. Subordinate Conjunctions are treated in connection with Subordinate Clauses.

2. Interjections express emotion. Thus:--

1. Surprise; as, Ä“n, ecce, Å. 2. Joy; as, iÅ, euoe. 3. Sorrow and Pain; as, heu, Ä“heu, vae, prÅ. 4. Calling; as, heus, eho.

* * * * *

PART IV.

* * * * *

WORD-FORMATION.

* * * * *

I. DERIVATIVES.

146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain terminations called Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives.

A. NOUNS.

1. Nouns derived from Verbs.

147. 1. The suffix -tor (-sor), Fem. -trÄ«x, denotes _the agent_; as,--

victor, victrÄ«x, _victor_; dÄ“fÄ“nsor, defender.

NOTE.--The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems; as,--

gladiÄtor, gladiator (from gladius).

2. The suffix -or (originally -Ås) denotes _an activity or a condition_; as,--

amor, _love_; timor, _fear_; dolor, pain.

3. The suffixes -tiÅ (-siÅ), Gen. -Ånis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -Å«s, denote _an action as in process_; as,--

vÄ“nÄtiÅ, _hunting_; obsessiÅ, _blockade_; gemitus, _sighing_; cursus, running.

NOTE.--Rarer endings with the same force are:--

a) -tÅ«ra, -sÅ«ra; as,--

sepultÅ«ra, _burial_; mÄ“nsÅ«ra, measuring.

b) -ium; as,--

gaudium, rejoicing.

c) -Ä«dÅ; as,--

cupÄ«dÅ, desire.

4. The suffixes -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, denote the means or place of an action; as,--

lÅ«men (lÅ«c-s-men), _light_; vocÄbulum, _word_; ÅrnÄmentum, _ornament_; documentum, _proof_; sepulcrum, _grave_; arÄtrum, _plough_; vehiculum, carriage.

2. Nouns derived from Nouns.

148. 1. Diminutives end in--

-ulus, (-ula, -ulum) -olus, (-ola, -olum), after a vowel -culus, (-cula, -culum) -ellus, (-ella, -ellum) -illus, (-illa, -illum)

as,--

nÄ«dulus, little nest (nÄ«dus); virgula, wand (virga); oppidulum, little town (oppidum); fÄ«liolus, little son (fÄ«lius); opusculum, little work (opus); tabella, tablet (tabula); lapillus, pebble (lapis).

NOTE 1.--It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the gender of the words from which they are derived.

NOTE 2.--The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the diminutive suffix, viz., -lo-. Thus:--

agellus, field, for ager-lus; lapillus, pebble, for lapid-lus.

2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either a collection of such persons or _their function_; as,--

collÄ“gium, _a corporation, body of colleagues_ (collÄ“ga); sacerdÅtium, priestly function (sacerdÅs).

3. The suffixes -Ärium, -Ä“tum, -Ä«le designate a place where objects are kept or _are found in abundance_; as,--

columbÄrium, _dove-cote_ (columba); olÄ«vÄ“tum, _olive-orchard_ (olÄ«va); ovÄ«le, _sheep-fold_ (ovis).

4. The suffix -Ätus denotes official position or _honor_; as,--

cÅnsulÄtus, consulship (cÅnsul).

5. The suffix -Ä«na appended to nouns denoting persons designates a vocation or _the place where it is carried on_; as,--

doctrÄ«na, teaching (doctor, _teacher_); medicÄ«na, the art of healing (medicus, _physician_); sÅ«trÄ«na, _cobbler's shop_ (sÅ«tor, _cobbler_).

6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of ..., daughter of .... They have the following suffixes:--

a) Masculines: -idÄ“s, -adÄ“s, -Ä«dÄ“s; as, PriamidÄ“s, _son of Priam_; AeneadÄ“s, _son of Aeneas_; PÄ“lÄ«dÄ“s, son of Peleus.

b) Feminines: -Ä“is, -is, -ias; as, NÄ“rÄ“is, _daughter of Nereus_; Atlantis, _daughter of Atlas_; Thaumantias, daughter of Thaumas.

3. Nouns derived from Adjectives.

149. The suffixes -tÄs (-itÄs), -tÅ«dÅ (-itÅ«dÅ), -ia, -itia are used for the formation of abstract nouns _denoting qualities_; as,--

bonitÄs, _goodness_; celeritÄs, _swiftness_; magnitÅ«dÅ, _greatness_; audÄcia, _boldness_; amÄ«citia, friendship.

* * * * *

B. ADJECTIVES.

1. Adjectives derived from Verbs.

150. 1. The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present participle; as,--

tremebundus, _trembling_; jÅ«cundus (juvÅ), pleasing.

2. The suffixes -Äx and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency, mostly a faulty one; as,--

loquÄx, _loquacious_; crÄ“dulus, credulous.

3. The suffix -idus denotes _a state_; as,--

calidus, _hot_; timidus, _timid_; cupidus, eager.

4. The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote capacity or ability, usually in a passive sense; as,--

fragilis, fragile (_i.e._ capable of being broken); docilis, docile.

2. Adjectives derived from Nouns.

a) _From Common Nouns._

151. 1. The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of substances or materials; as,--

aureus, _of gold_; ferreus, _of iron_; fÄginus, of beech.

2. The suffixes -ius, -icus, -Ä«lis, -Älis, -Äris, -Ärius, -nus, -Änus, -Ä«nus, -Ä«vus, -Ä“nsis signify belonging to, _connected with_; as,--

ÅrÄtÅrius, _oratorical_; legiÅnÄrius, _legionary_; bellicus, _pertaining to war_; paternus, _paternal_; cÄ«vÄ«lis, _civil_; urbÄnus, _of the city_; rÄ“gÄlis, _regal_; marÄ«nus, _marine_; cÅnsulÄris, _consular_; aestÄ«vus, _pertaining to summer_; circÄ“nsis, belonging to the circus.

3. The suffixes -Åsus and -lentus denote _fullness_; as,--

perÄ«culÅsus, full of danger, glÅriÅsus, _glorious_; _dangerous_; opulentus, wealthy.

4. The suffix -tus has the force of _provided with_; as,--

barbÄtus, _bearded_; stellÄtus, set with stars.

b) _From Proper Names._

152. 1. Names of persons take the suffixes: -Änus, -iÄnus, -Ä«nus; as,--

CatÅniÄnus, _belonging to PlautÄ«nus, _belonging to Cato_; Plautus_.

2. Names of nations take the suffixes -icus, -ius; as,--

GermÄnicus, _German_; ThrÄcius, Thracian.

3. Names of places take the suffixes -Änus, -Ä«nus, -Ä“nsis, -aeus, -ius; as,--

RÅmÄnus, _Roman_; AthÄ“niÄ“nsis, _Athenian_; AmerÄ«nus, _of Ameria_; Smyrnaeus, _of Smyrna_; Corinthius, Corinthian.

NOTE.-- -Änus and -Ä“nsis, appended to names of countries, designate something stationed in the country or connected with it, but not indigenous; as,--

bellum Ä€fricÄnum, _a war (of Romans with Romans) in Africa_. bellum HispÄniÄ“nse, a war carried on in Spain. legiÅnes GallicÄnae, _(Roman) legions stationed in Gaul_.

3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives.

153. Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur; as,--

parvolus, _little_; misellus (passer), poor little (_sparrow_); pauperculus, needy.

4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs.

154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tÄ«nus, -tÄnus; as,--

hodiernus, _of to-day_ (hodiÄ“); hesternus, of yesterday (herÄ«); intestÄ«nus, internal (intus); diÅ«tinus, _long-lasting_ (diÅ«).

* * * * *

C. VERBS.

1. Verbs derived from Verbs.

155. 1. INCEPTIVES OR INCHOATIVES. These end in -scÅ, and are formed from Present Stems. They denote _the beginning of an action_; as,--

labÄscÅ, begin to totter (from labÅ); horrÄ“scÅ, grow rough (from horreÅ); tremÄ“scÅ, begin to tremble (from tremÅ); obdormÄ«scÅ, fall asleep (from dormiÅ).

2. FREQUENTATIVES OR INTENSIVES. These denote a repeated or energetic action. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -tÅ or -sÅ. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation end in -itÅ (not -ÄtÅ, as we should expect). Examples of Frequentatives are--

jactÅ, toss about, brandish (from jaciÅ, _hurl_); cursÅ, run hither and thither (from currÅ, _run_); volitÅ, flit about (from volÅ, _fly_).

a. Some double Frequentatives occur; as,--

cantitÅ, sing over and over (cantÅ); cursitÅ, keep running about (cursÅ); ventitÅ, keep coming.

b. agitÅ, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem.

3. DESIDERATIVES. These denote a desire to do something. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -uriÅ; as,--

Ä“suriÅ, desire to eat, am hungry (edÅ); parturiÅ, want to bring forth, _am in (pariÅ). labor_

2. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives (Denominatives).

156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive; those of the Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and Fourth Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Examples are--

a) From Nouns:--

fraudÅ, defraud (fraus); vestiÅ, clothe (vestis); flÅreÅ, bloom (flÅs).

b) From Adjectives:--

lÄ«berÅ, free (lÄ«ber); saeviÅ, be fierce (saevus).

* * * * *

D. ADVERBS.

157. 1. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial Stem by means of the suffix -im; as,--

certÄtim, emulously (certÅ); cursim, in haste (currÅ); statim, immediately (stÅ).

2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed:--

a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -Ätim; as,--

gradÄtim, _step by step_;

paulÄtim, _gradually_;

virÄ«tim, man by man.

b) With the suffix -tus; as,--

antÄ«quitus, _of old_;

rÄdÄ«citus, from the roots.

c) With the suffix -ter; as,--

breviter, briefly.

* * * * *

II. COMPOUNDS.

158. 1. Compounds are formed by the union of simple words. The second member usually contains the essential meaning of the compound; the first member expresses some modification of this.

2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition. Thus:--

a. In the second member of compounds. (See Â§ 7, 1.)

b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the compound often appears as Ä where we should expect Å or Äƒ; sometimes it is dropped altogether, and in case of consonant stems Ä is often inserted; as,--

signifer, _standard-bearer_;

tubicen, _trumpeter_;

magnanimus, _high-minded_;

mÄtricÄ«da, matricide.

159. EXAMPLES OF COMPOUNDS.

1. Nouns:--

a) Preposition + Noun; as,--

dÄ“-decus, _disgrace_;

pro-avus, _great-grandfather_.

b) Noun + Verb Stem; as,--

agri-cola, _farmer_;

frÄtri-cÄ«da, fratricide.

2. Adjectives:--

a) Preposition + Adjective (or Noun); as,--

per-magnus, _very great_;

sub-obscÅ«rus, _rather obscure_;

Ä-mÄ“ns, frantic.

b) Adjective + Noun; as,--

magn-animus, _great-hearted_;

celeri-pÄ“s, _swift-footed_.

c) Noun + Verb Stem; as,--

parti-ceps, _sharing_;

morti-fer, _death-dealing_.

3. Verbs:--

The second member is always a verb. The first may be--

a) A Noun; as,--

aedi-ficÅ, build.

b) An Adjective; as,--

ampli-ficÅ, enlarge.

c) An Adverb; as,--

male-dÄ«cÅ, rail at.

d) Another Verb; as,--

cale-faciÅ, make warm.

e) A Preposition; as,--

ab-jungÅ, _detach_;

re-ferÅ, _bring back_;

dis-cernÅ, _distinguish_;

ex-spectÅ, await.

NOTE.--Here belong the so-called INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS:

ambi- (amb-), _around_;

dis- (dir-, di-), apart, _asunder_;

por-, _forward_;

red- (re-), _back_;

sÄ“d- (sÄ“-), _apart from_;

vÄ“-, without.

4. Adverbs:--

These are of various types; as,--

anteÄ, _before_;

Ä«lÄ«cÅ (in locÅ), _on the spot_;

imprÄ«mÄ«s, _especially_;

obviam, in the way.

* * * * *

PART V.

* * * * *

SYNTAX.

* * * * *

160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences

CHAPTER I.

--_Sentences._

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.

161. Sentences may be classified as follows:--

1. DECLARATIVE, which state something; as,--

puer scrÄ«bit, the boy is writing.

2. INTERROGATIVE, Which ask a question; as,--

quid puer scrÄ«bit, _what is the boy writing?_

3. EXCLAMATORY, which are in the form of an exclamation; as,--

quot librÅs scrÄ«bit, _how many books he writes!_

4. IMPERATIVE, which express a command or an admonition; as,--

scrÄ«be, _write!_

FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sentence-Questions.

1. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs, such as--quis, quÄ«, quÄlis, quantus, quot, quotiÄ“ns, quÅ, quÄ, etc. Thus:--

quis venit, _who comes?_ quam dÄ«Å« manÄ“bit, _how long will he stay?_

2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced--

a) By nÅnne implying the answer 'yes'; as,--

nÅnne vidÄ“tis, _do you not see?_

b) By num implying the answer 'no'; as,--

num exspectÄs, _do you expect?_ (i.e. _you don't expect, do you?_)

c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which usually stands first), and simply asking for information; as,--

vidÄ“sne, _do you see?_

A question introduced by -ne may receive a special implication from the context; as,--

sÄ“nsistÄ«ne, _did you not perceive?_

d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of surprise or _indignation_; as,--

tÅ« in jÅ«dicum cÅnspectum venÄ«re audÄ“s, _do you dare to come into the presence of the judges?_

3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions merely in form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion; as, quis dubitat, _who doubts?_ (_= no one doubts_).

4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced by the following particles:--

utrum ... an;

-ne ... an;

---- ... an.

If the second member is negative, annÅn (less often necne) is used. Examples:--

utrum honestum est an turpe, } honestumne est an turpe, } _is it honorable or base?_ honestum est an turpe, } suntne dÄ« annÅn, _are there gods or not?_

a. An was not originally confined to double questions, but introduced single questions, having the force of -ne, nÅnne, or num. Traces of this use survive in classical Latin; as,--

Ä€ rÄ“bus gerendÄ«s abstrahit senectÅ«s. Quibus? An eÄ«s quae juventÅ«te geruntur et vÄ«rÄ«bus? _Old age (it is alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From what pursuits? Is it not merely from those which are carried on by the strength of youth?_

5. Answers.

a. The answer YES is expressed by ita, etiam, vÄ“rÅ, sÄnÄ“, or by repetition of the verb; as,--

'vÄ«sne locum mÅ«tÄ“mus?' 'sÄnÄ“'. _'Shall we change the place?'_ _'Certainly.'_

'estÄ«sne vÅs lÄ“gatÄ«?' 'sumus.' _'Are you envoys?'_ _'Yes.'_

b. The answer NO is expressed by nÅn, minimÄ“, minimÄ“ vÄ“rÅ, or by repeating the verb with a negative; as,--

'jam ea praeteriit?' 'nÅn.' _'Has it passed?'_ _'No.'_

'estne frÄter intus?' 'nÅn est.' _'Is your brother within?'_ _'No.'_

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the SUBJECT and PREDICATE.

The SUBJECT is that _concerning which something is said, asked, etc._ The PREDICATE is that _which is said, asked, etc., concerning_ the SUBJECT.

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one Predicate are called SIMPLE SENTENCES, those containing more are called COMPOUND SENTENCES. Thus puer librÅs legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence; but puer librÅs legit et epistulÄs scrÄ«bit, the boy reads books and writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different members of a Compound Sentence are called Clauses.

165. COÃ–RDINATE AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. Clauses which stand upon an equality are called COÃ–RDINATE; a Clause dependent on another is called SUBORDINATE. Thus in puer librÅs legit et epistulÄs scrÄ«bit the two clauses are CoÃ¶rdinate; but in puer librÅs legit quÅs pater scrÄ«bit, the boy reads the books which his father writes, the second clause is Subordinate to the first.

* * * * *

CHAPTER II.

--_Syntax of Nouns._

SUBJECT.

166. The Subject of a Finite Verb (i.e. any form of the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nominative Case.

1. The Subject may be--

a) A Noun or Pronoun; as,--

puer scrÄ«bit, _the boy writes_;

hÄ«c scrÄ«bit, this man writes.

b) An Infinitive; as,--

decÅrum est prÅ patriÄ morÄ«, _to die for one's county is a noble thing_.

c) A Clause; as,--

opportÅ«nÄ“ accÄ«dit quod vÄ«distÄ«, it happened opportunely that you saw.

2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb and is not separately expressed; as,--

scrÄ«bÅ, _I write_; videt, _he sees._

a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is expressed; as,--

ego scrÄ«bÅ et tÅ« legis, _I write, and you read._

3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied from the context, especially the auxiliary sum; as,--

rÄ“ctÄ“ ille (sc. facit), _he does rightly_; consul profectus (sc. est), the consul set out.

PREDICATE NOUNS.

167. A PREDICATE NOUN is one connected with the Subject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.

168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in Case;[47] as,--

CicerÅ ÅrÄtor fuit, _Cicero was an orator_;

Numa creÄtus est rÄ“x, Numa was elected king.

1. when possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Subect in Gender also; as,--

philosophia est vÄ«tae magistra, philosophy is the guide of life.

2. Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predicate Noun are--

a) fiÅ, Ä“vÄdÅ, exsistÅ; maneÅ; videor; as,--

Croesus nÅn semper mÄnsit rÄ“x, Croesus did not always remain king.

b) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, etc.; as, creor, appellor, habeor; as,--

RÅmulus rÄ“x appellatus est, _Romulus was called king_;

habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.

APPOSITIVES.

169. 1. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defining another Noun denoting the same person or thing; as,--

CicerÅ cÅnsul, _Cicero, the Consul_;

urbs RÅma, the city Rome.

2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as,--

opera CicerÅnÄ«s ÅrÄtÅris, _the works of Cicero, the orator_;

apud HÄ“rodotum, patrem historiae, _in the works of Herodotus, the father of history_.

3. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gender also; as,--

assentÄtiÅ adjÅ«trÄ«x vitiÅrum, _flattery, the promoter of evils_.

4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or oppidum, with or without a preposition; as,--

CorinthÄ«, AchÄiae urbe, or in AchÄiae urbe, _at Corinth, a city of Greece_.

5. PARTITIVE APPOSITION. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently followed by an Appositive denoting a part; as,--

mÄ«litÄ“s, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restitÄ“runt, _the soldiers, all the bravest of them, resisted the enemy_.

* * * * *

THE CASES.

THE NOMINATIVE.

170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject, Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. See Â§Â§ 166-169.

* * * * *

THE VOCATIVE.

171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address; as,--

crÄ“dite mihi, jÅ«dicÄ“s, _believe me, judges_.

1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose; as, audÄ« tÅ«, populus AlbÄnus, _hear ye, Alban people!_

2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in the Nominative; as, nÄte, mea magna potentia sÅlus, _O son, alone the source of my great power_.

* * * * *

THE ACCUSATIVE.

172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object.

173. The Direct Object may express either of the two following relations:--

A. The PERSON OR THING AFFECTED by the action; as,--

cÅnsulem interfÄ“cit, _he slew the consul_;

legÅ librum, I read the book.

B. The RESULT PRODUCED by the action; as,--

librum scrÄ«psÄ«, I wrote a book (i.e. produced one);

templum struit, he constructs a temple.

174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these two types are TRANSITIVE VERBS.

a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used without it. They are then said to be employed _absolutely_; as,--

rÅ«mor est meum gnÄtum amÄre, it is rumored that my son is in love.

Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.

175. 1. This is the most frequent use of the Accusative; as in--

parentÄ“s amÄmus, _we love our parents_;

mare aspicit, he gazes at the sea.

2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind are worthy of note:--

a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposition, become Transitive. Thus:--

1) Compounds of circum, praeter, trÄns; as,--

hostÄ“s circumstÄre, _to surround the enemy;_

urbem praeterÄ«re, _to pass by the city;_

mÅ«rÅs trÄnscendere, _to climb over the walls._

2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub; as,--

adÄ«re urbem, _to visit the city;_

peragrÄre Italiam, _to travel through Italy;_

inÄ«re magistrÄtum, _to take office;_

subÄ«re perÄ«culum, _to undergo danger._

b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have also a Transitive use; as,--

queror fÄtum, _I lament my fate;_

doleÅ ejus mortem, _I grieve at his death;_

rÄ«deÅ tuam stultitiam, _I laugh at your folly._

So also lÅ«geÅ, maereÅ, _mourn_; gemÅ, _bemoan_; horreÅ, shudder, and others.

c) The impersonals decet, _it becomes_; dÄ“decet, _it is unbecoming_; juvat, it pleases, take the Accusative of the Person Affected; as,--

mÄ“ decet haec dÄ«cere, _it becomes me to say this._

d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage, are employed as Middles (Â§ 256, 1; 2), and take the Accusative as Object; as,--

galeam induitur, _he puts on his helmet;_

cÄ«nctus tempora hederÄ, _having bound his temples with ivy;_

nÅdÅ sinus collÄ“cta, _having gathered her dress in a knot._

Accusative of the Result Produced.

176. 1. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in such expressions as--

librum scrÄ«bÅ, _I write a book_;

domum aedificÅ, I build a house.

2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Neuter Pronoun, or Adjective, as an Accusative of Result. Thus:--

a) A Neuter Pronoun; as,--

haec gemÄ“bat, _he made these moans_;

idem glÅriÄrÄ«, _to make the same boast_;

eadem peccat, he makes the same mistakes.

b) A Neuter Adjective,--particularly Adjectives of number or amount,--multum, multa, pauca, etc.; also nihil; as,--

multa egeÅ, _I have many needs_;

pauca studet, _he has few interests_;

multum valet, _he has great strength_;

nihil peccat, he makes no mistake.

NOTE.--In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction; as--

minitantem vÄna, _making vain threats_;

acerba tuÄ“ns, _giving a fierce look_;

dulce loquentem, sweetly talking.

3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives grows out of this Accusative; as,--

multum sunt in vÄ“nÄtiÅne, they are much engaged in hunting.

a. So also plÅ«rimum, _very greatly_; plÄ“rumque, _generally_; aliquid, _somewhat_; quid, _why?_ nihil, _not at all_; etc.

4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result which is of kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a COGNATE ACCUSATIVE, and is usually modified by an Adjective; as,--

sempiternam servitÅ«tem serviat, _let him serve an everlasting slavery_;

vÄ«tam dÅ«ram vÄ«xÄ«, I have lived a hard life.

a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred etymology, but merely of kindred meaning; as,--

stadium currit, _he runs a race_;

Olympia vincit, he wins an Olympic victory.

5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of tasting and _smelling_; as,--

piscis mare sapit, _the fish tastes of the sea_;

ÅrÄtiÅnÄ“s antÄ«quitÄtem redolent, the speeches smack of the past.

Two Accusatives--Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

177. Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling, Showing, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusative; as,--

mÄ“ hÄ“rÄ“dem fÄ“cit, he made me heir.

Here mÄ“ is Direct Object, hÄ“rÄ“dÄ“m Predicate Accusative. So also--

eum jÅ«dicem cÄ“pÄ“re, _they took him as judge_;

urbem RÅmam vocÄvit, _he called the city Rome_;

sÄ“ virum praestitit, he showed himself a man.

2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun; as,--

hominÄ“s caecÅs reddit cupiditÄs, _covetousness renders men blind_;

ApollÅ SÅcratem sapientissimum jÅ«dicÄvit, Apollo adjudged Socrates the wisest man.

a. Some Verbs, as reddÅ, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predicate Accusative.

3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (Â§ 168, 2, b): as,--

urbs RÅma vocÄta est, the city was called Rome.

a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction; reddÅ and efficiÅ, for example, never take it.

Two Accusatives--Person and Thing.

178. 1. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced. Thus:--

a) Verbs of requesting and _demanding_; as,--

Åtium dÄ«vÅs rogat, _he asks the gods for rest_;

mÄ“ duÄs ÅrÄtiÅnÄ“s postulÄs, you demand two speeches of me.

So also ÅrÅ, poscÅ, reposcÅ, exposcÅ, flÄgitÅ, though some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative of the Person; as,--

opem Ä tÄ“ poscÅ, I demand aid of you.

b) Verbs of teaching (doceÅ and its compounds); as,--

tÄ“ litterÄs doceÅ, I teach you your letters.

c) Verbs of _inquiring_; as,--

tÄ“ haec rogÅ, _I ask you this_;

tÄ“ sententiam rogÅ, I ask you your opinion.

d) Several Special Verbs; viz. moneÅ, admoneÅ, commoneÅ, cÅgÅ, accÅ«sÅ, arguÅ, and a few others. These admit only a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing; as,--

hÅc tÄ“ moneÅ, _I give you this advice_;

mÄ“ id accÅ«sÄs, _you bring this accusation against me_;

id cÅgit nÅs nÄtÅ«ra, _nature compels us (to) this_.

e) One Verb of concealing, cÄ“lÅ; as,--

nÅn tÄ“ cÄ“lÄvÄ« sermÅnem, I have not concealed the conversation from you.

2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained; as,--

omnÄ“s artÄ“s Ä“doctus est, _he was taught all accomplishments_;

rogÄtus sum sententiam, _I was asked my opinion_;

multa ÄdmonÄ“mur, we are given many admonitions.

a. Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.

Two Accusatives with Compounds.

179. 1. Transitive compounds of trÄns may take two Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other upon the Preposition, as,--

mÄ«litÄ“s flÅ«men trÄnsportat, he leads his soldiers across the river.

2. With other compounds this construction is rare.

3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is retained; as,--

mÄ«litÄ“s flÅ«men trÄdÅ«cÄ“bantur, the soldiers were led across the river.

Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative.

180. 1. The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part to which an action or quality refers; as,--

tremit artÅ«s, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his limbs tremble;

nÅ«da genÅ«, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare;

manÅ«s revinctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands tied.

2. Note that this construction--

a) Is borrowed from the Greek. b) Is chiefly confined to poetry. c) Usually refers to a part of the body. d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.

Accusative of Time and Space.

181. 1. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are denoted by the Accusative; as,--

quadrÄgintÄ annÅs vÄ«xit, _he lived forty years_;

hÄ«c locus passÅ«s sescentÅs aberat, _this place was six hundred paces away_;

arborÄ“s quÄ«nquÄgintÄ pedÄ“s altae, _trees fifty feet high_;

abhinc septem annÅs, seven years ago.

2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per; as,

per biennium labÅrÄvÄ«, I toiled throughout two years.

Accusative of Limit of Motion.

182. 1. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used--

a) With names of Towns, Small Islands, and _Peninsulas_; as,--

RÅmam vÄ“nÄ«, _I came to Rome_;

AthÄ“nÄs proficÄ«scitur, _he sets out for Athens_;

DÄ“lum pervÄ“nÄ«, I arrived at Delos.

b) With domum, domÅs, rÅ«s; as,--

domum revertitur, _he returns home_;

rÅ«s Ä«bÅ, I shall go to the country.

NOTE.--When domus means house (i.e. building), it takes a preposition; as,--

in domum veterem remigrÄre, to move back to an old house.

2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require a Preposition to denote Limit of Motion; as,--

ad Italiam vÄ“nit, _he came to Italy._

a. The Preposition is also customary with the Accusatives urbem or oppidum when they stand in apposition with the name of a town; as,--

Thalam, in oppidum magnum, _to Thala, a large town;_

Genavam ad oppidum, to the town Geneva.

b. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be combined with the name of a country or other word dependent upon a preposition; as,--

ThÅ«riÅs in Italiam pervectus, _carried to Thurii in Italy;_

cum AcÄ“n ad exercitum vÄ“nisset, _when he had come to the army at Ace._

3. To denote toward, to the vicinity of, _in the vicinity of,_ ad is used; as,--

ad Tarentum vÄ“nÄ«, _I came to the vicinity of Tarentum;_

ad CannÄs pugna facta est, _a battle was fought near Cannae._

4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be used without a preposition to express the limit of motion; as,--

Italiam vÄ“nit, _he came to Italy._

5. The goal notion seems to represent the original function of the Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the phrase Ä«nfitiÄs Ä«re, to deny (lit. _to go to a denial_), and a few other similar expressions.

Accusative in Exclamations.

183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjective, is used in Exclamations; as,--

mÄ“ miserum, _ah, wretched me!_

ÅŒ fallÄcem spem, _oh, deceptive hope!_

Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive.

184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusative; as,--

videÅ hominem abÄ«re, _I see that the man is going away._

Other Uses of the Accusative.

185. Here belong--

1. Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives; viz.--

id genus, _of that kind_; as, hominÄ“s id genus, men of that kind (originally hominÄ“s, id genus hominum, _men, that kind of men_);

virÄ«le secus, muliebre secus, of the male sex, _of the female sex_;

meam vicem, tuam vicem, etc., for my part, etc.;

bonam partem, magnam partem, _in large part_;

maximam partem, for the most part.

2. Some phrases of doubtful origin; as,--

id temporis, _at that time_; quod si, _but if_; id aetÄtis, _at that time_; cÄ“tera, in other respects.

* * * * *

THE DATIVE.

186. The Dative case, in general, expresses relations which are designated in English by the prepositions to and for.

Dative of Indirect Object.

187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the person to whom something is given, said, or done. Thus:--

I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accusative; as,--

hanc pecÅ«niam mihi dat, _he gives me this money_;

haec nÅbÄ«s dÄ«xit, he said this to us.

a. Some verbs which take this construction (particularly dÅnÅ and circumdÅ) admit also the Accusative of the person along with the Ablative of the thing. Thus:--

Either ThemistoclÄ« mÅ«nera dÅnÄvit, he presented gifts to Themistocles, or

Themistoclem mÅ«neribus dÅnÄvit, _he presented Themistocles with gifts_;

urbÄ« mÅ«rÅs circumdat, he builds walls around the city, or

urbem mÅ«rÄ«s circumdat, he surrounds the city with walls II. With many intransitive verbs; as,--

nÅ«llÄ« labÅrÄ« cÄ“dit, _he yields to no labor._

a. Here belong many verbs signifying favor,[48] help, injure, please, displease, trust, distrust, command, obey, serve, resist, indulge, spare, pardon, envy, threaten, be angry, believe, persuade, and the like; as,--

Caesar populÄribus favet, _Caesar favors (i.e. is favorable to) the popular party_;

amÄ«cÄ«s cÅnfÄ«dÅ, _I trust (to) my friends_;

OrgetorÄ«x HelvÄ“tiÄ«s persuÄsit, _Orgetorix persuaded (made it acceptable to) the Helvetians_;

bonÄ«s nocet quÄ« malÄ«s parcit, _he injures (does harm to) the good, who spares the bad_.

NOTE.--It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are intransitive, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same apparent English equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative; as, juvÅ, laedÅ, dÄ“lectÅ. Thus: audentÄ“s deus juvat, _God helps the bold_; nÄ“minem laesit he injured no one.

b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally; as,--

tibi parcitur, _you are spared_;

mihi persuÄdÄ“tur, _I am being persuaded_;

eÄ« invidÄ“tur, he is envied.

c. Some of the foregoing verbs admit also a Direct Object in connection with the Dative; as,--

mihi mortem minitÄtur, he threatens me with death (_threatens death to me_).

III. With many verbs compounded with the prepositions: ad, ante, circum, com,[49] in, inter, ob, post, prae, prÅ, sub, super.

These verbs fall into two main classes,--

1. Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indirect object become capable of doing so when compounded with a preposition; as,--

afflÄ«ctÄ«s succurrit, _he helps the aflicted_;

exercituÄ« praefuit, _he was in command of the army_;

intersum cÅnsiliÄ«s, I share in the deliberations.

2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become capable, when compounded, of taking a dative also as indirect object; as,--

pecÅ«niae pudÅrem antepÅnit, _he puts honor before money_;

inicere spem amÄ«cÄ«s, _to inspire hope in one's friends_;

mÅ«nÄ«tiÅni LabiÄ“num praefÄ“cit, he put Labienus in charge of the fortifications.

Dative of Reference.

188. 1. The Dative of Reference denotes the person _to whom a statement refers, of whom it is true_, or _to whom it is of interest;_ as,--

mihi ante oculÅs versÄris, you hover before my eyes (lit. _hover before the eyes to me_);

illÄ« sevÄ“ritÄs amÅrem nÅn dÄ“minuit, in his case severity did not diminish love (lit. _to him severity did not diminish_);

interclÅ«dere inimÄ«cÄ«s commeÄtum, _to cut of the supplies of the enemy._

a. Note the phrase alicui interdÄ«cere aquÄ et Ä«gnÄ«, to interdict one from fire and water.

NOTE.--The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole. It is often used where, according to the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive; so in the first and third of the above examples.

2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are--

a) Dative of the Local Standpoint. This is regularly a participle; as,--

oppidum prÄ«mum Thessaliae venientibus ab Ä’pÄ«rÅ, the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (lit. _to those coming from Epirus_).

b) Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative constructions of the personal pronouns in which the connection of the Dative with the rest of the sentence is of the very slightest sort; as,--

tÅ« mihi istÄ«us audÄciam dÄ“fendis? _tell me, do you defend that man's audacity?_

quid mihi Celsus agit? _what is my Celsus doing?_

c) Dative of Person Judging; as,--

erit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god to me (i.e. in my opinion);

quae ista servitÅ«s tam clÄro hominÄ«, how can that be slavery to so illustrious a man (i.e. to his mind)!

d) Dative of Separation. Some verbs of taking away, especially compounds of ab, dÄ“, ex, ad, govern a Dative of the person, less often of the thing; as,--

honÅrem dÄ“trÄxÄ“runt hominÄ«, _they took away the honor from the man_;

Caesar rÄ“gÄ« tetrarchiam Ä“ripuit, _Caesar took the tetrarchy away from the king_;

silicÄ« scintillam excÅ«dit, he struck a spark from the flint.

Dative of Agency.

189. The Dative is used to denote _agency_--

1. Regularly with the Gerundive; as,--

haec nÅbÄ«s agenda sunt, _these things must be done by us_;

mihi eundum est, I must go (lit. _it must be gone by me_).

a. To avoid ambiguity, Ä with the Ablative is sometimes used with the Gerundive; as,--

hostibus Ä nÅbÄ«s parcendum est, the enemy must be spared by us.

2. Much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive voice and the perfect passive participle; as,--

disputÄtiÅ quae mihi nÅ«per habita est, the discussion which was recently conducted by me.

3. Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive; as,--

honesta bonÄ«s virÄ«s quaeruntur, noble ends are sought by good men.

Dative of Possession.

190. The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb esse in such expressions as:--

mihi est liber, _I have a book_;

mihi nÅmen est MÄrcus, I have the name Marcus.

1. But with nÅmen est the name is more commonly attracted into the Dative; as, mihi MÄrcÅ nÅmen est.

Dative of Purpose or Tendency.

191. The Dative of Purpose or Tendency designates the end toward which an action is directed or the direction in which it tends. It is used--

1. Unaccompanied by another Dative; as,--

castrÄ«s locum dÄ“ligere, _to choose a place for a camp_;

legiÅnÄ“s praesidiÅ relinquere, to leave the legions as a guard (lit. _for a guard_);

receptuÄ« canere, to sound the signal for a retreat.

2. Much more frequently in connection with another Dative of the person:--

a) Especially with some form of esse; as,--

fortÅ«nae tuae mihi cÅ«rae sunt, your fortunes are a care to me (lit. _for a care_);

quibus sunt odiÅ, _to whom they are an object of hatred_;

cui bonÅ? _to whom is it of advantage_?

b) With other verbs; as,--

hÅs tibi mÅ«nerÄ« mÄ«sit, _he has sent these to you for a present_;

PausaniÄs AtticÄ«s vÄ“nit auxiliÅ, Pausanias came to the aid of the Athenians (lit. _to the Athenians for aid_).

3. In connection with the Gerundive; as,--

decemvirÄ« lÄ“gibus scrÄ«bundÄ«s, _decemvirs for codifying the laws_;

mÄ“ gerendÅ bellÅ ducem creÄvÄ“re, me they have made leader for carrying on the war.

NOTE.--This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy.

Dative with Adjectives.

192. The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds very closely to its use with verbs. Thus:--

1. Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with adjectives signifying: friendly, unfriendly, similar, dissimilar, equal, near, related to, etc.; as,--

mihi inimÄ«cus, _hostile to me_;

sunt proximÄ« GermÄnis, _they are next to the Germans_;

noxiae poena pÄr estÅ, let the penalty be equal to the damage.

a. For propior and proximus with the Accusative, see Â§ 141, 3.

2. Corresponding to the Dative of Purpose, the Dative occurs with adjectives signifying: suitable, adapted, _fit_; as,--

castrÄ«s idÅneus locus, _a place fit for a camp_;

apta diÄ“s sacrificiÅ, a day suitable for a sacrifice.

NOTE.--Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad.

Dative of Direction.

193. In the poets the Dative is occasionally used to denote the _direction of motion_; as,--

it clÄmor caelÅ, _the shout goes heavenward_;

cinerÄ“s rÄ«vÅ fluentÄ« jace, cast the ashes toward a flowing stream.

1. By an extension of this construction the poets sometimes use the Dative to denote the _limit of motion_; as,--

dum LatiÅ deÅs Ä«nferret, till he should bring his gods to Latium.

* * * * *

THE GENITIVE.

194. The Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.

GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.

195. With Nouns the Genitive is the case which defines the meaning of the limited noun more closely. This relation is generally indicated in English by the preposition of. There are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns:--

Genitive of Origin, Objective Genitive, Genitive of Material, Genitive of the Whole, Genitive of Possession, Appositional Genitive, Subjective Genitive, Genitive of Quality.

196. Genitive of Origin; as,--

MÄrcÄ« fÄ«lius, the son of Marcus.

197. Genitive of Material; as,--

talentum aurÄ«, _a talent of gold_;

acervus frÅ«mentÄ«, a pile of grain.

198. Genitive of Possession or Ownership; as,--

domus CicerÅnis, _Cicero's house_.

1. Here belongs the Genitive with causÄ and grÄtiÄ. The Genitive always precedes; as,--

hominum causÄ, _for the sake of men_;

meÅrum amÄ«cÅrum grÄtiÄ, for the sake of my friends.

2. The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially with esse and fierÄ«; as,--

domus est rÄ“gis, _the house is the king's_;

stultÄ« est in errÅre manÄ“re, _it is (the part) of a fool to remain in error_;

dÄ“ bellÅ jÅ«dicium imperÄtÅris est, nÅn mÄ«litum, _the decision concerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers_.

a. For the difference in force between the Possessive Genitive and the Dative of Possession, see Â§ 359, 1.

199. Subjective Genitive. This denotes _the person who makes or produces something or who has a feeling_; as,--

dicta PlatÅnis, _the utterances of Plato_;

timÅrÄ“s lÄ«berÅrum, the fears of the children.

200. Objective Genitive. This denotes _the object of an action or feeling_; as,--

metus deÅrum, _the fear of the gods_;

amor lÄ«bertÄtis, _love of liberty_;

cÅnsuÄ“tÅ«dÅ bonÅrum hominum, intercourse with good men.

1. This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions; as,--

amor ergÄ parentÄ“s, _love toward one's parents_.

201. Genitive of the Whole. This designates the whole of which a part is taken. It is used--

1. With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Ordinal Numerals; as,--

magna pars hominum, _a great part of mankind_;

duo mÄ«lia peditum, _two thousand foot-soldiers_;

quis mortÄlium, _who of mortals?_

major frÄtrum, _the elder of the brothers_;

gÄ“ns maxima GermÄnÅrum, _the largest tribe of the Germans_;

prÄ«mus omnium, the first of all.

a. Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or dÄ“ with the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quÄ«dam; as,--

fidÄ“lissimus dÄ“ servÄ«s, _the most trusty of the slaves_;

quÄ«dam ex amÄ«cÄ«s, _certain of his friends_;

Å«nus ex mÄ«litibus, one of the soldiers.

b. In English we often use of where there is no relation of whole to part. In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the Genitive; as,--

quot vÅs estis, _how many of you are there?_

trecentÄ« conjÅ«rÄvimus, three hundred of us have conspired (i.e. we, three hundred in number).

2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nominative or Accusative Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used substantively; also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim when used substantively; as,--

quid cÅnsilÄ«, _what purpose?_

tantum cibÄ«, _so much food_;

plÅ«s auctÅritÄtis, _more authority_;

minus labÅris, _less labor_;

satis pecÅ«niae, _enough money_;

parum industriae, too little industry.

a. An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be employed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil bonÄ«, nothing good.

b. But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun they limit; as, nihil dulcius, nothing sweeter.

3. Occasionally we find the Genitive of the Whole dependent upon Adverbs of place; as,--

ubi terrÄrum? ubi gentium? _where in the world?_

a. By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in dependence upon prÄ«diÄ“ and postrÄ«diÄ“, but only in the phrases prÄ«diÄ“ ejus diÄ“Ä«, _on the day before that_; postrÄ«diÄ“ ejus diÄ“Ä«, on the day after that.

202. Appositional Genitive. The Genitive sometimes has the force of an appositive; as,--

nÅmen rÄ“gis, _the name of king_;

poena mortis, _the penalty of death_;

ars scrÄ«bendÄ«, the art of writing.

203. Genitive of Quality. The Genitive modified by an Adjective is used to denote quality. This construction presents several varieties. Thus it is used--

1. To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person or thing; as,--

vir magnae virtÅ«tis, _a man of great virtue_;

ratiÅnÄ“s ejus modÄ«, considerations of that sort.

a. Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction, chiefly magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, along with ejus.

2. To denote measure (breadth, length, etc.); as,--

fossa quÄ«ndecim pedum, a trench fifteen feet wide (or _deep_);

exsilium decem annÅrum, an exile of ten years.

3. Equivalent to the Genitive of Quality (though probably of different origin) are the Genitives tantÄ«, quantÄ«, parvÄ«, magnÄ«, minÅris, plÅ«ris, minimÄ«, plÅ«rimÄ«, maximÄ«. These are used predicatively to denote _indefinite value_; as,--

nÅ«lla studia tantÄ« sunt, _no studies are of so much value_;

magnÄ« opera ejus exÄ«stimÄta est, his assistance was highly esteemed.

4. By an extension of the notion of value, quantÄ«, tantÄ«, plÅ«ris, and minÅris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote _indefinite price_; as,--

quantÄ« aedÄ“s Ä“mistÄ«, _at how high a price did you purchase the house?_

5. Any of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality may be used predicatively; as,--

tantae mÅlis erat RÅmÄnam condere gentem, of so great difficulty was it to found the Roman race.

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.

204. The Genitive is used with many Adjectives to limit the extent of their application. Thus:--

1. With adjectives signifying desire, knowledge, familiarity, memory, participation, power, fullness, and their opposites; as,--

studiÅsus discendÄ«, _desirous of learning_;

perÄ«tus bellÄ«, _skilled in war_;

Ä«nsuÄ“tus labÅris, _unused to toil_;

immemor mandÄtÄ« tuÄ«, _unmindful of your commission_;

plÄ“na perÄ«culÅrum est vÄ«ta, life is full of dangers.

a. Some participles used adjectively also take the Genitive; as,--

diligÄ“ns vÄ“ritÄtis, _fond of truth_;

amÄns patriae, _devoted to one's country_.

2. Sometimes with proprius and commÅ«nis; as,--

virÄ« propria est fortitÅ«dÅ, bravery is characteristic of a man.

memoria est commÅ«nis omnium artium, memory is common to all professions.

a. proprius and commÅ«nis are also construed with the Dative.

3. With similis the Genitive is the commoner construction in Cicero, when the reference is to living objects; as,--

fÄ«lius patris simillimus est, _the son is exactly like his father_;

meÄ« similis, _like me_; vestrÄ« similis, like you.

When the reference is to things, both Genitive and Dative occur; as,--

mors somnÅ (or somnÄ«) similis est, death is like sleep.

4. In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives is extended far beyond earlier limits; as, atrÅx animÄ«, _fierce of temper_; incertus cÅnsilÄ«, undecided in purpose.

GENITIVE WITH VERBS.

205. The Genitive is used with the following classes of Verbs:--

Memini, _ReminÄ«scor_, _OblÄ«vÄ«scor_.

206. 1. WHEN REFERRING TO PERSONS--

a. meminÄ« always takes the Genitive of personal or reflexive pronouns; as,--

meÄ« meminerÄ«s, remember me!

nostrÄ« meminit, he remembers us.

With other words denoting persons meminÄ« takes the Accusative, rarely the Genitive; as,--

Sullam meminÄ«, _I recall Sulla_;

vÄ«vÅrum meminÄ«, I remember the living.

b. oblÄ«vÄ«scor regularly takes the Genitive; as,--

EpicÅ«rÄ« nÅn licet oblÄ«vÄ«scÄ«, _we mustn't forget Epicurus_.

2. WHEN REFERRING TO THINGS, meminÄ«, reminÄ«scor, oblÄ«vÄ«scor take sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, without difference of meaning; as,--

animus praeteritÅrum meminit, _the mind remembers the past_;

meministÄ«ne nÅmina, _do you remember the names?_

reminÄ«scere veteris incommodÄ«, _remember the former disaster_;

reminÄ«scÄ“ns acerbitÄtem, remembering the bitterness.

a. But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly stand in the Accusative; as,--

haec meminÄ«, _I remember this;_

multa reminÄ«scor, _I remember many things._

3. The phrase mihi (tibi, etc.) in mentem venit, following the analogy of meminÄ«, takes the Genitive; as,--

mihi patriae veniÄ“bat in mentem, _I remembered my country._

_AdmoneÅ_, _CommoneÅ_, _CommonefaciÅ._

207. These verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the person, occasionally take a Genitive of the thing; as,--

tÄ“ veteris amÄ«citiae commonefaciÅ, _I remind you of our old friendship._

a. But more frequently (in Cicero almost invariably) these verbs take dÄ“ with the Ablative; as,--

mÄ“ admonÄ“s dÄ“ sorÅre, _you remind me of your sister._

b. A neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in the Accusative (Â§ 178, 1, d); as,--

tÄ“ hÅc admoneÅ, _I give you this warning._

Verbs of Judicial Action.

208. 1. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Acquitting take the Genitive of the _charge_; as,--

mÄ“ fÅ«rtÄ« accÅ«sat, _he accuses me of theft_;

Verrem avÄritiae coarguit, _he convicts Verres of avarice_;

impietÄtis absolÅ«tus est, he was acquitted of blasphemy.

2. Verbs of Condemning take--

a. The Genitive of the _charge_; as,--

pecÅ«niae pÅ«blicae condemnÄtus, _condemned (on the charge) of embezzlement_ (lit. _public money_);

capitis damnÄtus, condemned on a capital charge (lit. _on a charge involving his head_).

b. The Ablative of the _penalty;_ as,--

capite damnÄtus est, _he was condemned to death_;

mÄ«lle nummÄ«s damnÄtus est, _he was condemned (to pay) a thousand sesterces_ (lit. by a thousand sesterces, Abl. of Means).

3. Note the phrases:--

vÅtÄ« damnÄtus, vÅtÄ« reus, _having attained one's prayer_ (lit. _condemned on the score of one's vow_);

dÄ“ vÄ«, (accused, convicted, etc.) _of assault_;

inter sÄ«cÄriÅs, (accused, convicted, etc.) of murder.

Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.

209. 1. The Impersonals pudet, paenitet, miseret, taedet, piget take the Accusative of the person affected, along with the Genitive _of the person or thing toward whom the feeling is directed_; as,--

pudet mÄ“ tuÄ«, I am ashamed of you (lit. _it shames me of you_);

paenitet mÄ“ hÅ«jus factÄ«, _I repent of this act_;

eum taedet vÄ«tae, _he is weary of life_;

pauperum tÄ“ miseret, you pity the poor.

a. Instead of the Genitive of the thing we often find an Infinitive or Neuter Pronoun used as subject of the verb. Thus;--

mÄ“ paenitet hÅc fÄ“cisse, _I repent of having done this_;

mÄ“ hÅc pudet, I am ashamed of this.

2. Misereor and miserÄ“scÅ also govern the Genitive; as,--

miserÄ“minÄ« sociÅrum, pity the allies.

Interest, _RÄ“fert._

210. With interest, it concerns, three points enter into consideration; viz.--

a) the _person concerned_; b) the thing about which he is concerned; c) the extent of his concern.

211. 1. The person concerned is regularly denoted by the Genitive; as,--

patris interest, it concerns the father.

a. But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, meÄ«, tuÄ«, nostrÄ«, vestrÄ«, the Latin uses the Ablative Singular Feminine of the Possessive, viz.: meÄ, tuÄ, etc.; as,--

meÄ interest, it concerns me.

2. The thing about which a person is concerned is denoted--

a) by a Neuter Pronoun as subject; as,--

hÅc reÄ« pÅ«blicae interest, this concerns the state.

b) by an Infinitive; as,--

omnium interest valÄ“re, it concerns all to keep well.

c) by an Indirect Question; as,--

meÄ interest quandÅ veniÄs, I am concerned as to when you are coming.

3. The degree of concern is denoted--

a) by the Genitive (cf. Â§ 203, 3): magnÄ«, parvÄ«, etc.; as,--

meÄ magnÄ« interest, it concerns me greatly.

b) by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maximÄ“, etc.; as,--

cÄ«vium minimÄ“ interest, it concerns the citizens very little.

c) by the Neuters, multum, plÅ«s, minus, etc.; as,--

multum vestrÄ interest, it concerns you much.

4. RÄ“fert follows interest in its construction, except that it rarely takes the Genitive of the person. Thus:--

meÄ rÄ“fert, _it concerns me_;

but rarely illÄ«us rÄ“fert, it concerns him.

Genitive with Other Verbs.

212. 1. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the Genitive; as,--

pecÅ«niae indigÄ“s, you need money.

a. These verbs more commonly take the Ablative (Â§ 214, 1); indigeÅ is the only verb which has a preference for the Genitive.

2. Potior, though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes takes the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust; and regularly in the phrase potÄ«rÄ« rÄ“rum, to get control of affairs.

3. In poetry some verbs take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek; as,--

dÄ“sine querellÄrum, _cease your complaints_;

operum solÅ«tÄ«, freed from their tasks.

* * * * *

THE ABLATIVE.

213. The Latin Ablative unites in itself three cases which were originally distinct both in form and in meaning; viz.--

The Ablative or from-case. The Instrumental or with-case. The Locative or where-case.

The uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly fall into Genuine Ablative uses, Instrumental uses, and Locative uses.

GENUINE ABLATIVE USES.

Ablative of Separation.

214. The Ablative of Separation is construed sometimes with, sometimes without, a preposition.

1. The following words regularly take the Ablative without a preposition:--

a) The Verbs of _freeing_: lÄ«berÅ, solvÅ, levÅ;

b) The Verbs of _depriving_: prÄ«vÅ, spoliÅ, exuÅ, fraudÅ, nÅ«dÅ;

c) The Verbs of _lacking_: egeÅ, careÅ, vacÅ;

d) The corresponding Adjectives, lÄ«ber, inÄnis, vacuus, nÅ«dus,

and some others of similar meaning.

Thus:--

cÅ«rÄ«s lÄ«berÄtus, _freed from cares_;

Caesar hostÄ“s armÄ«s exuit, _Caesar stripped the enemy of their arms_;

caret sÄ“nsÅ« commÅ«nÄ«, _he lacks common sense_;

auxiliÅ eget, _he needs help_;

bonÅrum vÄ«ta vacua est metÅ«, the life of the good is free from fear.

NOTE 1.--Yet Adjectives and lÄ«berÅ may take the preposition ab,--regularly so with the Ablative of persons; as,--

urbem Ä tyrannÅ lÄ«berÄrunt, _they freed the city from the tyrant._

NOTE 2.--IndigeÅ usually takes the Genitive. See Â§ 212, 1, a.

2. Of Verbs signifying to keep from, to remove, to withdraw, some take the preposition, others omit it. The same Verb often admits both constructions. Examples:--

abstinÄ“re cibÅ, _to abstain from food;_

hostÄ“s fÄ«nibus prohibuÄ“runt, _they kept the enemy from their borders_;

praedÅnÄ“s ab Ä«nsulÄ prohibuit, he kept the pirates from the island.

3. Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prepositon, particularly compounds of dis- and sÄ“-; as,--

dissentiÅ Ä tÄ“, _I dissent from you_;

sÄ“cernantur Ä nÅbÄ«s, let them be separated from us.

4. The Preposition is freely omitted in poetry.

Ablative of Source.

215. The Ablative of Source is used with the participles nÄtus and ortus (in poetry also with Ä“ditus, satus, and some others), to designate parentage or _station_; as,--

Jove nÄtus, _son of Jupiter_;

summÅ locÅ nÄtus, _high-born_ (lit. _born from a very high place_);

nÅbilÄ« genere ortus, born of a noble family.

1. Pronouns regularly (nouns rarely) take ex; as,

ex mÄ“ nÄtus, sprung from me.

2. To denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriundus (with or without ab), is used; as,--

ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from Ulysses.

Ablative of Agent.

216. The Ablative accompanied by Ä (ab) is used with passive verbs to denote the _personal agent_; as,--

Ä Caesare accÅ«sÄtus est, he was arraigned by Caesar.

1. Collective nouns referring to persons, and abstract nouns when personified, may be construed as the personal agent. Thus:--

hostÄ“s Ä fortÅ«nÄ dÄ“serÄ“bantur, _the enemy were deserted by Fortune_;

Ä multitÅ«dine hostium mÅntÄ“s tenÄ“bantur, the mountains were held by a multitude of the enemy.

2. Names of animals sometimes admit the same construction. Thus:--

Ä canibus laniÄtus est, he was torn to pieces by dogs.

Ablative of Comparison.

217. 1. The Ablative is often used with Comparatives in the sense of _than_; as,--

melle dulcior, _sweeter than honey_;

patria mihi vÄ«tÄ cÄrior est, my country is dearer to me than life.

2. This construction, as a rule, occurs only as a substitute for quam (_than_) with the Nominative or Accusative. In other cases quam must be used; as,--

tuÄ« studiÅsior sum quam illÄ«us, I am fonder of you than of him.

--StudiÅsior illÅ would have meant, I am fonder of you than he is.

PlÅ«s, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equivalents of plÅ«s quam, minus quam, etc. Thus:--

amplius vÄ«gintÄ« urbÄ“s incenduntur, _more than twenty cities are fired_;

minus quÄ«nque mÄ«lia prÅcessit, he advanced less than five miles.

3. Note the use of opÄ«niÅne with Comparatives; as,--

opÄ«niÅne celerius venit, he comes more quickly than expected (lit. _than opinion_).

INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Means.

218. The Ablative is used to denote means or _instrument_; as,--

Alexander sagittÄ vulnerÄtus est, Alexander was wounded by an arrow.

There are the following special varieties of this Ablative:--

1. Åªtor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds take the Ablative; as,--

dÄ«vitiÄ«s Å«titur, he uses his wealth (lit. _he benefits himself by his wealth_);

vÄ«tÄ fruitur, he enjoys life (lit. _he enjoys himself by life_);

mÅ«nere fungor, I perform my duty (lit. _I busy myself with duty_);

carne vescuntur, they eat flesh (lit. _feed themselves by means of_);

castrÄ«s potÄ«tus est, he got possession of the camp (lit. _made himself powerful by the camp_).

a.. Potior sometimes governs the Genitive. See Â§ 212, 2.

2. With opus est (rarely Å«sus est), _there is need_; as,--

duce nÅbÄ«s opus est, we need a leader.

a. A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with opus as predicate. Thus:--

hÅc mihi opus est, this is necessary for me.

b. An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject. Thus dux nÅbÄ«s opus est is a rare form of expression.

c. Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus est; as,--

opus est properÄtÅ, there is need of haste.

3. With nÄ«tor, innÄ«xus, and frÄ“tus; as,--

nÄ«titur hastÄ, he rests on a spear (lit. _supports himself by a spear_);

frÄ“tus virtÅ«te, relying on virtue (lit. _supported by virtue_).

4. With continÄ“rÄ«, cÅnsistere, cÅnstÄre, _consist of_; as,--

nervÄ«s et ossibus continentur, they consist of sinews and bones (lit. _they are held together by sinews and bones_);

mortÄlÄ« cÅnsistit corpore mundus, the world consists of mortal substance (lit. holds together by means of, etc.).

6. In expressions of the following type:--

quid hÅc homine faciÄs, _what can you do with this man?_

quid meÄ TulliolÄ fÄ«et, _what will become of my dear Tullia?_ (lit. _what will be done with my dear Tullia?_)

7. In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary English idiom:--

proeliÅ contendere, vincere, to contend, _conquer in battle_;

proeliÅ lacessere, _to provoke to battle_;

currÅ« vehÄ«, _to ride in a chariot_;

pedibus Ä«re, _to go on foot_;

castrÄ«s sÄ“ tenÄ“re, to keep in camp.

8. With Verbs of filling and Adjectives of _plenty_; as,--

fossÄs virgultÄ«s complÄ“runt, they filled the trenches with brush.

a. But plÄ“nus more commonly takes the Genitive. See Â§ 204, 1.

9. Under 'Means' belongs also the Ablative of the Way by Which; as,--

vÄ«num TiberÄ« dÄ“vectum, _wine brought down (by) the Tiber_.

10. The means may be a person as well as a thing. Thus:--

mÄ«litibus Ä lacÅ« LemannÅ ad montem JÅ«ram mÅ«rum perdÅ«cit, with (i.e. by means of) _his troops he runs a wall from Lake Geneva to Mt. Jura_.

Ablative of Cause.

219. The Ablative is used to denote cause; as,--

multa glÅriae cupiditÄte fÄ“cit, he did many things on account of his love of glory.

1. So especially with verbs denoting mental states; as, dÄ“lector, gÄudeÅ, laetor, glÅrior, fÄ«dÅ, cÅnfÄ«dÅ. Also with contentus; as,--

fortÅ«nÄ amÄ«cÄ« gaudeÅ, _I rejoice at the fortune of my friend (i.e. on account of it_);

victÅriÄ suÄ glÅriantur, _they exult over their victory_;

nÄtÅ«rÄ locÄ« cÅnfÄ«dÄ“bant, they trusted in the character of their country (lit. _were confident on account of the character_).

a. fÄ«dÅ and cÅnfÄ«dÅ always take the Dative of the person (Â§ 187, II, a); sometimes the Dative of the thing.

2. As Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives as jussÅ«, by order of, injussÅ«, without the order, rogÄtÅ«, etc.

Ablative of Manner.

220. The Ablative with cum is used to denote manner; as,--

cum gravitÄte loquitur, he speaks with dignity.

1. The preposition may be absent when the Ablative is modified by an adjective; as,--

magnÄ gravitÄte loquitur, he speaks with great dignity.

2. The preposition is regularly absent in the expressions jÅ«re, injÅ«riÄ, jocÅ, vÄ«, fraude, voluntÄte, fÅ«rtÅ, silentiÅ.

3. A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that in accordance with which or in pursuance of which anything is or is done. It is generally used without a preposition. Thus:--

meÄ sententiÄ, _according to my opinion_;

suÄ«s mÅribus, _in accordance with their custom_;

suÄ sponte, voluntarily, _of his (their) own accord_;

eÄ condiciÅne, on these terms.

Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.

221. The Ablative is often used to denote an attendant circumstance of an action or an event; as,--

bonÄ«s auspiciÄ«s, _under good auspices_;

nÅ«lla est altercÄtiÅ clÄmÅribus umquam habita majÅribus, _no debate was ever held under circumstances of greater applause_;

exstinguitur ingentÄ« lÅ«ctÅ« prÅvinciae, _he dies under circumstances of great grief on the part of the province_;

longÅ intervÄllÅ sequitur, he follows at a great distance.

Ablative of Accompaniment.

222. The Ablative with cum is used with verbs of motion to denote _accompaniment_; as,--

cum comitibus profectus est, _he set out with his attendants_;

cum febrÄ« domum rediit, he returned home with a fever.

1. In military expressions the Ablative may stand without cum when modified by any adjective except a numeral; as,--

omnibus cÅpiÄ«s, ingentÄ« exercitÅ«, magnÄ manÅ«; but usually cum exercitÅ«, cum duÄbus legiÅnibus.

Ablative of Association.

222A. The Ablative is often used with verbs of joining, mixing, clinging, _exchanging_; also with assuÄ“scÅ, cÅnsuÄ“scÅ, assuÄ“faciÅ, and some others to denote _association_; as,--

improbitÄs scelere jÅ«ncta, _badness joined with crime_;

ÄÄ“r calÅre admixtus, _air mixed with heat_;

assuÄ“tus labÅre, accustomed to (lit. _familiarized with) toil_;

pÄcem bellÅ permÅ«tant, they change peace for (lit. _with) war_.

Ablative of Degree of Difference.

223. The Ablative is used with comparatives and words involving comparison (as post, ante, Ä«nfrÄ, suprÄ) to denote the _degree of difference_; as,--

dimidiÅ minor, _smaller by a half_;

tribus pedibus altior, _three feet higher_;

paulÅ post, _a little afterwards_;

quÅ plurÄ habÄ“mus, eÅ cupimus ampliÅra, _the more we have, the more we want_.

Ablative of Quality.

224. The Ablative, modified by an adjective, is used to denote _quality;_ as,--

puella eximiÄ fÅrmÄ, _a girl of exceptional beauty_;

vir singulÄrÄ« industriÄ, a man of singular industry.

1. The Ablative of Quality may also be used predicatively; as,--

est magnÄ prÅ«dentiÄ, _he is (a man) of great wisdom_;

bonÅ animÄ sunt, they are of good courage.

2. In place of the Adjective we sometimes find a limiting Genitive; as,--

sunt speciÄ“ et colÅre taurÄ«, they are of the appearance and color of a bull,

3. In poetry the Ablative of Quality sometimes denotes _material;_ as,--

scopulÄ«s pendentÄ«bus antrum, _a cave of arching rocks._

Ablative of Price.

225. With verbs of buying and selling, price is designated by the Ablative; as--

servum quÄ«nque minÄ«s Ä“mit, _he bought the slave for five minae._

1. The Ablatives magnÅ, plÅ«rimÅ, parvÅ, minimÅ (by omission of pretiÅ) are used to denote _indefinite price_; as,--

aedÄ“s magnÅ vÄ“ndidÄ«t, _he sold the house for a high price._

2. For the Genitive of Indefinite Price, see Â§ 203, 4.

Ablative of Specification.

226. The Ablative of Specification is used to denote that in respect to which something is or is done; as,--

HelvÄ“tiÄ« omnibus GallÄ«s virtÅ«te praestÄbant, _the Helvetians surpassed all the Gauls in valor_;

pede claudus, lame in his foot.

1. Note the phrases:--

major nÄtÅ«, older (lit. _greater as to age_);

minor nÄtÅ«, _younger._

2. Here belongs the use of the Ablative with dignus, worthy, indignus, unworthy, and dignor, _deem worthy of_; as,--

dignÄ« honÅre, _worthy of honor (i.e. in point of honor_);

fidÄ“ indignÄ«, _unworthy of confidence_;

mÄ“ dignor honÅre, I deem myself worthy of honor.

Ablative Absolute.

227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence. In its commonest form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a participle; as,--

urbe captÄ, AenÄ“Äs fÅ«git, _when the city had been captured, Aeneas fled_ (lit. _the city having been captured_).

1. Instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun; as,--

vÄ«vÅ Caesare rÄ“s pÅ«blica salva erat, while Caesar was alive the state was safe (lit. _Caesar being alive_);

TarquiniÅ rÄ“ge, PythagorÄs in Italiam vÄ“nit, in the reign of Tarquin Pythagoras came into Italy (lit. _Tarquin being king_);

Cn. PompejÅ, M. CrassÅ cÅnsulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crassus (lit. _P. and C. being consuls_).

2. The Ablative Absolute is generally used in Latin where in English we employ subordinate clauses. Thus the Ablative Absolute may correspond to a clause denoting--

a) Time, as in the foregoing examples.

b) Condition; as,--

omnÄ“s virtÅ«tÄ“s jacent, voluptÄte dominante, _all virtues lie prostrate, if pleasure is master_.

c) Opposition; as,--

perditÄ«s omnibus rÄ“bus, virtÅ«s sÄ“ sustentÄre potest, _though everything else is lost, yet Virtue can maintain herself_.

d) Cause; as,--

nÅ«llÅ adversante rÄ“gnum obtinuit, _since no one opposed him, he secured the throne_.

e) Attendant circumstance; as,--

passÄ«s palmÄ«s pÄcem petÄ«vÄ“runt, _with hands outstretched, they sued for peace_.

3. An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Absolute construction, especially in Livy and later writers; as,--

audÄ«tÅ eum fÅ«gisse, when it was heard that he had fled.

4. A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause in which it stands. Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare.

LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE.

Ablative of Place.

_A. Place where._

228. The place where is regularly denoted by the _Ablative with a preposition_; as,--

in urbe habitat, he dwells in the city.

1. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a preposition; viz.--

a) Names of towns,--except Singulars of the First and Second Declensions (see Â§ 232, 1); as,--

CarthÄginÄ«, _at Carthage_;

AthÄ“nis, _at Athens_;

VejÄ«s, at Veii.

b) The general words locÅ, locÄ«s, parte; also many words modified by tÅtus or even by other Adjectives; as,--

hÅc locÅ, _at this place_;

tÅtÄ«s castrÄ«s, in the whole camp.

c) The special words: forÄ«s, _out of doors_; rÅ«rÄ«, in the country, terrÄ marÄ«que, on land and sea.

d) The poets freely omit the preposition with any word denoting place; as,--

stant lÄ«tore puppÄ“s, the sterns rest on the beach.

_B. Place from which.[50]_

229. Place from which is regularly denoted by the _Ablative with a preposition_; as,--

ab ItaliÄ profectus est, _he set out from Italy_;

ex urbe rediit, he returned from the city.

1. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a preposition; viz.--

a) Names of towns and small islands; as,--

RÅma profectus est, _he set out from Rome_;

RhodÅ revertit, he returned from Rhodes.

b) domÅ, _from home_; rÅ«re, from the country.

c) Freely in poetry; as,--

ItaliÄ dÄ“cessit, he withdrew from Italy.

2. With names of towns, ab is used to mean from the vicinity of, or to denote the point _whence distance is measured;_ as,--

Ä GergoviÄ discessit, _he withdrew from the vicinity of Gergovia_;

Ä RÅmÄ X mÄ«lia aberat, he was ten miles distant from Rome.

Urbe and oppidÅ, when standing in apposition with a town name, are accompanied by a preposition; as,--

Curibus ex oppidÅ SabÄ«nÅrum, _from Cures, a town of the Sabines_

Ablative of Time.

_A. Time at which._

230. The Ablative is used to denote the time _at which_; as,--

quÄrtÄ hÅrÄ mortuus est, _he died at the fourth hour_;

annÅ septuÄgÄ“simÅ cÅnsul creÄtus, elected consul in his seventieth year.

1. Any word denoting a period of time may stand in this construction, particularly annus, vÄ“r, aestÄs, hiems, diÄ“s, nox, hÅra, comitia (_Election Day_), lÅ«dÄ« (_the Games_), etc.

2. Words not denoting time require the preposition in, unless accompanied by a modifier. Thus:--

in pÄce, _in peace_; in bellÅ, _in war_;

but secundÅ bellÅ PÅ«nicÅ, in the second Punic War.

3. Expressions like in eÅ tempore, in summa senectÅ«te, take the preposition because they denote situation rather than time.

_B. Time within which._

231. Time within which is denoted by the Ablative either with or _without a preposition_; as,--

stella SÄturnÄ« trÄ«gintÄ annÄ«s cursum cÅnficit, _the planet Saturn completes its orbit within thirty years_;

ter in annÅ, thrice in the course of the year.

1. Occasionally the Ablative denotes _duration of time_; as,--

bienniÅ prÅsperÄs rÄ“s habuit, for two years he had a prosperous administration.

* * * * *

THE LOCATIVE.

232. The Locative case occurs chiefly in the following words:--

1. Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small islands of the first and second declensions, to denote the place _in which_; as,--

RÅmae, _at Rome_; CorinthÄ«, _at Corinth_; RhodÄ«, at Rhodes.

2. In the following special forms:--

domÄ«, _at home_; humÄ«, _on the ground_; bellÄ«, _in war_; mÄ«litiae, _in war_; vesperÄ«, _at evening_; herÄ«, yesterday.

3. Note the phrase pendÄ“re animÄ«, lit. _to be in suspense in one's mind_.

4. For urbs and oppidum in apposition with a Locative, see Â§ 169, 4.

* * * * *

CHAPTER III.

--_Syntax of Adjectives._

233. 1. The word with which an Adjective agrees is called its Subject.

2. Attributive and Predicate Adjectives. An Attributive Adjective is one that limits its subject directly; as,--

vir sapiÄ“ns, a wise man.

A Predicate Adjective is one that limits its subject through the medium of a verb (usually esse); as,--

vir est sapiÄ“ns, _the man is wise_;

vir vidÄ“bÄtur sapiÄ“ns, _the man seemed wise_;

vir jÅ«dicÄtus est sapiÄ“ns, _the man was judged wise_;

hunc virum sapientem jÅ«dicÄvimus, we adjudged this man wise.

3. Participles and Adjective Pronouns have the construction of Adjectives.

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.

234. Agreement with One Noun. When an Adjective limits one noun it agrees with it in Gender, Number, and Case.

1. Two Adjectives in the Singular may limit a noun in the Plural, as; prÄ«ma et vÄ«cÄ“sima legiÅnÄ“s, the first and twentieth legions.

2. A Predicate Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject is Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing; as,--

omnium rÄ“rum mors est extrÄ“mum, death is the end of all things.

235. Agreement with Two or More Nouns.

A. AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER.

1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in number with the nearest noun; as,--

pater tuus et mÄter, _your father and mother_;

eadem alacritÄs et studium, the same eagerness and zeal.

2. When the Adjective is Predicative, it is regularly Plural; as,--

pÄx et concordia sunt pulchrae, peace and concord are glorious.

B. AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER.

1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees in gender with the nearest noun; as,--

rÄ“s operae multae ac labÅris, a matter of much effort and labor.

2. When the Adjective is Predicative--

a) If the nouns are of the same gender, the Adjective agrees with them in gender; as,--

pater et fÄ«lius captÄ« sunt, father and son were captured.

Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective is more frequently Neuter; as,--

stultitia et timiditÄs fugienda sunt, folly and cowardice must be shunned.

b) If the nouns are of different gender; then,--

Î±) In case they denote persons, the Adjective is Masculine; as,--

pater et mÄter mortuÄ« sunt, the father and mother have died.

Î²) In case they denote things, the Adjective is Neuter; as,--

honÅrÄ“s et victÅriae fortuÄ«ta sunt, _honors and victories are accidental._

Î³) In case they include both persons and things, the Adjective is,--

Î±Î±) Sometimes Masculine; as,--

domus, uxor, lÄ«berÄ« inventÄ« sunt, _home, wife, and children are secured._

Î²Î²) Sometimes Neuter; as,--

parentÄ“s, lÄ«berÅs, domÅs vÄ«lia habÄ“re, _to hold parents, children, houses cheap._

Î³Î³) Sometimes it agrees with the nearest noun; as,--

populÄ« prÅvinciaeque lÄ«berÄtae sunt, _nations and provinces were liberated._

c) Construction according to Sense. Sometimes an Adjective does not agree with a noun according to strict grammatical form, but according to sense; as,--

pars bÄ“stiÄ«s objectÄ« sunt, _part (of the men) were thrown to beasts._

ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.

236. 1. PLURAL ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. Adjectives are quite freely used as Substantives in the Plural. The Masculine denotes persons; the Neuter denotes things; as,--

doctÄ«, _scholars_; parva, _small things_; malÄ«, _the wicked_; magna, _great things_; GraecÄ«, _the Greeks_; Å«tilia, _useful things_; nostrÄ«, our men.

2. Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the Nominative and Accusative cases. Such forms as magnÅrum, omnium; magnÄ«s, omnibus, would ordinarily lead to ambiguity; yet where there is no ambiguity, they sometimes occur; as,--

parvÄ«s compÅnere magna, to compare great things with small Otherwise the Latin says: magnÄrum rÄ“rum, magnÄ«s rÄ“bus, etc.

237. SINGULAR ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. Adjectives are less freely used as Substantives in the Singular than in the Plural.

1. Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use; as,--

probus invidet nÄ“minÄ«, the honest man envies nobody.

a. Usually vir, homÅ, or some similar word is employed; as,--

homÅ doctus, _a scholar_;

vir RÅmÄnus, a Roman.

b. But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so used; as,--

hÄ«c doctus, _this scholar_;

doctus quÄ«dam, a certain scholar.

2. Neuters are likewise infrequent; as,--

vÄ“rum, _truth_;

jÅ«stum, _justice_;

honestum, virtue.

a. This substantive use of Neuter Singulars is commonest in the construction of the Genitive of the Whole, and after Prepositions; as,--

aliquid vÄ“rÄ«, _something true_;

nihil novÄ«, _nothing new_;

in mediÅ, in the midst.

238. From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others which have become nouns; as,--

adversÄrius, _opponent_; hÄ«berna, _winter quarters_; aequÄlis, _contemporary_; propinquus, _relative_; amÄ«cus, _friend_; socius, _partner_; cognÄtus, _kinsman_; sodÄlis, _comrade_; vÄ«cÄ«nus, _neighbor_; etc.

ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OF ADVERBS.

239. The Latin often uses an Adjective where the English idiom employs an Adverb or an adverbial phrase; as,--

senÄtus frequÄ“ns convÄ“nit, _the senate assembled in great numbers_;

fuit assiduus mÄ“cum, he was constantly with me.

COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

240. 1. The Comparative often corresponds to the English Positive with 'rather,' 'somewhat,' '_too_'; as,--

senectÅ«s est loquÄcior, _old age is rather talkative._

2. So the Superlative often corresponds to the Positive with '_very_'; as,--

vir fortissimus, _a very brave man._

3. Strengthening Words. Vel and quam are often used with the Superlative as strengthening particles, vel with the force of 'very,' and quam with the force of '_as possible_'; as,--

vel maximus, _the very greatest_;

quam maximae cÅpiae, as great forces as possible.

4. Phrases of the type '_more rich than brave_' regularly take the Comparative in both members; as,--

exercitus erat dÄ«tior quam fortior, _the army was more rich than brave._

OTHER PECULIARITIES.

241. 1. Certain Adjectives may be used to denote a part of an object, chiefly prÄ«mus, extrÄ“mus, summus, medius, Ä«nfimus, Ä«mus; as,--

summus mÅns, _the top of the mountain_;

extrÄ“mÄ hieme, in the last part of the winter.

2. Prior, prÄ«mus, ultimus, and postrÄ“mus are frequently equivalent to a relative clause; as,--

prÄ«mus eam vÄ«dÄ«, _I was the first who saw her_;

ultimus dÄ“cessit, he was the last who withdrew.

3. When multus and another adjective both limit the same noun et is generally used; as,--

multae et magnae cÅgitÄtiÅnÄ“s, _many (and) great thoughts_.

* * * * *

CHAPTER IV.

--_Syntax of Pronouns._

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

242. 1. The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs are, as a rule, not expressed except for the purpose of emphasis, contrast, or clearness. Thus ordinarily:--

videÅ, _I see_; amat, he loves.

But ego tÄ“ videÅ, et tÅ« mÄ“ vidÄ“s, _I see you, and you see me_.

2. The Genitives meÄ«, tuÄ«, nostrÄ«, vestrÄ« are used only as Objective Genitives; nostrum and vestrum as Genitives of the Whole. Thus:--

memor tuÄ«, _mindful of you_;

dÄ“sÄ«derium vestrÄ«, _longing for you_;

nÄ“mÅ vestrum, no one of you.

a. But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in the place of the Possessive in the phrases omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.

3. The First Plural is often used for the First Singular of Pronouns and Verbs. Compare the Eng. editorial 'we.'

4. When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not use a pronoun with the second, as is the rule in English. Thus:--

virtÅ«s amÄ«citiÄs conciliat et cÅnservat, virtue establishes friendships and maintains them (not eÄs cÅnservat).

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

243. 1. The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not employed except for the purpose of clearness. Thus:--

patrem amÅ, _I love my father_;

dÄ“ fÄ«liÄ« morte flÄ“bÄs, you wept for the death of your son.

But--

dÄ“ morte fÄ«liÄ« meÄ« flÄ“bÄs, you wept for the death of my son.

a. When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the possessive usually stands after its noun; but in order to indicate emphasis or contrast, it precedes; as,--

suÄ manÅ« lÄ«berÅs occÄ«dit, _with his own hand he slew his children_;

meÄ quidem sententiÄ, in my opinion at least.

2. Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of an Objective Genitive; as,--

metus vester, _fear of you_;

dÄ“sÄ«derium tuum, longing for you.

3. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipsÄ«us or ipsÅrum, in apposition with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive; as,--

meÄ ipsÄ«us operÄ, _by my own help_;

nostrÄ ipsÅrum operÄ, by our own help.

a. So sometimes other Genitives; as,--

meÄ Å«nÄ«us operÄ, by the assistance of me alone.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

244. 1. The Reflexive Pronoun sÄ“ and the Possessive Reflexive suus have a double use:--

I. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or subordinate) in which they stand,--'Direct Reflexives'; as,--

sÄ“ amant, _they love themselves_;

suÅs amÄ«cÅs adjuvÄt, _he helps his own friends_;

eum ÅrÄvÄ«, ut sÄ“ servÄret, I besought him to save himself.

II. They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the subject of the principal clause,--'Indirect Reflexives'; as,--

mÄ“ ÅrÄvit ut sÄ“ dÄ“fenderem, he besought me to defend him (lit. _that I defend himself_);

mÄ“ ÅrÄvÄ“runt, ut fortÅ«nÄrum suÄrum dÄ“fÄ“nsiÅnem susciperem, they besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes.

a. The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses which express the thought, not of the author, but of the subject of the principal clause.

2. The Genitive suÄ« is regularly employed, like meÄ« and tuÄ«, as an Objective Genitive, _e.g._ oblÄ«tus suÄ«, _forgetful of himself_; but it occasionally occurs--particularly in post-Augustan writers--in place of the Possessive suus; as, fruitur fÄmÄ suÄ«, he enjoys his own fame.

3. SÄ“ and suus are sometimes used in the sense, _one's self_, _one's own_, where the reference is not to any particular person; as,--

sÄ“ amÄre, _to love one's self_;

suum genium propitiÄre, _to propitiate one's own genius_.

4. Suus sometimes occurs in the meaning his own, their own, etc., referring not to the subject but to an oblique case; as,--

Hannibalem suÄ« cÄ«vÄ“s Ä“ cÄ«vitÄte Ä“jÄ“cÄ“runt, _his own fellow-citizens drove out Hannibal._

a. This usage is particularly frequent in combination with quisque; as,--

suus quemque error vexat, his own error troubles each.

5. The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by the oblique cases of ego and tÅ« (Â§ 85); as,--

vÅs dÄ“fenditis, you defend yourselves.

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

245. 1. The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun ('each other'), but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases: inter nÅs, inter vÅs, inter sÄ“; as,--

Belgae obsidÄ“s inter sÄ“ dedÄ“runt, the Belgae gave each other hostages (lit. _among themselves_);

amÄmus inter nÅs, _we love each other_;

GallÄ« inter sÄ“ cohortÄtÄ« sunt, the Gauls exhorted each other.

a. Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of this type.

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

HÄ«c, Ille, Iste.

246. 1. Where hÄ«c and ille are used in contrast, hÄ«c usually refers to the latter of two objects, and ille to the former.

2. HÄ«c and ille are often used in the sense of 'the following'; as,--

ThemistoclÄ“s hÄ«s verbÄ«s epistulam mÄ«sit, _Themistocles sent a letter (couched) in the following words_;

illud intellegÅ, omnium Åra in mÄ“ conversa esse, _I understand this, that the faces of all are turned toward me_.

3. Ille often means _the famous_; as, SolÅn ille, the famous Solon.

4. Iste frequently involves contempt; as, iste homÅ, _that fellow!_

5. The above pronouns, along with is, are usually attracted to the gender of a predicate noun; as, hÄ«c est honor, meminisse officium suum, _this is an honor, to be mindful of one's duty._

Is.

247. 1. Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative quÄ«. Thus:--

Maximum, eum quÄ« Tarentum recÄ“pit, dÄ«lÄ“xÄ«, _I loved Maximus, the man who retook Tarentum_.

a. Closely akin to this usage is is in the sense of such (= tÄlis); as,--

nÅn sum is quÄ« terrear, I am not such a person as to be frightened.

b. Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with an entire clause; as,--

nÅn suspicÄbÄtur (id quod nunc sentiet) satis multÅs testÄ“s nÅbÄ«s reliquÅs esse, _he did not suspect (a thing which he will now perceive) that we had witnesses enough left_.

Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in this use.

2. Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third person, 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' 'they,' 'them.'

3. When the English uses 'that of,' 'those of,' to avoid repetition of the noun, the Latin omits the pronoun: as,--

in exercitÅ« Sullae et posteÄ in CrassÄ« fuerat, _he had been in the army of Sulla and afterward in that of Crassus_;

nÅ«llae mÄ“ fÄbulae dÄ“lectant nisi PlautÄ«, no plays delight me except those of Plautus.

4. Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense: _and that too_; as,--

vincula, et ea sempiterna, _imprisonment, and that too permanently_.

Äªdem.

248. 1. Äªdem in apposition with the subject or object often has the force of also, _likewise_; as,--

quod idem mihi contigit, which likewise happened to me (lit. _which, the same thing_);

bonus vir, quem eundem sapientem appellÄmus, _a good man, whom we call also wise_.

For Ä«dem atque (ac), the same as, see Â§ 341, 1. c.

Ipse.

249. 1. Ipse, literally self, acquires its special force from the context; as,--

eÅ ipsÅ diÄ“, _on that very day_;

ad ipsam rÄ«pam, _close to the bank_;

ipsÅ terrÅre, _by mere fright_;

valvae sÄ“ ipsae aperuÄ“runt, _the doors opened of their own accord_;

ipse aderat, he was present in person.

2. The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the reflexive, more commonly agrees with the subject; as,--

sÄ“cum ipsÄ« loquuntur, _they talk with themselves_;

sÄ“ ipse continÄ“re nÅn potest, he cannot contain himself 3. Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose of _marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity_; as,--

Persae pertimuÄ“runt nÄ“ AlcibiadÄ“s ab ipsÄ«s dÄ“scÄ«sceret et cum suÄ«s in grÄtiam redÄ«ret, _the Persians feared that Alcibiades would break with them and become reconciled with his countrymen_;

ea molestissimÄ“ ferre dÄ“bent hominÄ“s quae ipsÅrum culpÄ contrÄcta sunt, men ought to chafe most over those things which have been brought about by their own fault (as opposed to the fault of others).

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

250. Agreement. 1. The Relative Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in Gender, Number, and Person, but its case is determined by its construction in the clause in which it stands; as,--

mulier quam vidÄ“bÄmus, _the woman whom we saw_;

bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we enjoy.

2. Where the antecedent is compound, the same principles for number and gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under similar conditions (see Â§ 235, B, 2). Thus:--

pater et fÄ«lius, qui captÄ« sunt, _the father and son who were captured_;

stultitia et timiditÄs quae fugienda sunt, _folly and cowardice which must be shunned_;

honÅrÄ“s et victÅriae quae sunt fortuÄ«ta, _honors and victories, which are accidental_.

3. The Relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun (either Nominative or Accusative) instead of its antecedent; as,--

carcer, quae lautumiae vocantur, _the prison, which is called Lautumiae_;

Belgae, quae est tertia pars, _the Belgians, who are the third part_.

4. Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number from the meaning of its antecedent; as,--

pars quÄ« bÄ“stiÄ«s objectÄ« sunt, _a part (of the men) who were thrown to beasts._

5. Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its antecedent; as,--

nÄtus eÅ patre quÅ dÄ«xÄ«, born of the father that I said.

251. Antecedent. 1. The antecedent of the Relative is sometimes omitted; as,--

quÄ« nÄtÅ«ram sequitur sapiÄ“ns est, he who follows Nature is wise.

2. The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or rarely an adjective); as,--

nostra quÄ« remÄnsimus caedÄ“s, _the slaughter of us who remained_;

servÄ«lÄ« tumultÅ«, quÅs Å«sus ac disciplÄ«na sublevÄrunt, _at the uprising of the slaves, whom experience and discipline assisted_ (servÄ«lÄ« = servÅrum).

3. Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative; as,--

erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, _there were two routes, by which (routes)._

4. Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. The antecedent is often incorporated in the relative clause. Thus:--

a) When the relative clause stands first; as,--

quam quisque nÅvit artem, in hÄc sÄ“ exerceat, _let each one practice the branch which he knows._

b) When the antecedent is an appositive; as,--

nÅn longÄ“ Ä TolÅsÄtium fÄ«nibus absunt, quae cÄ«vitÄs est in prÅvinciÄ, _they are not far from the borders of the Tolosates, a state which is in our province._

c) When the logical antecedent is a superlative; as,--

ThemistoclÄ“s dÄ“ servÄ«s suÄ«s, quem habuit fidÄ“lissimum, mÄ«sit, Themistocles sent the most trusty slave he had.

d) In expressions of the following type--

quÄ es prÅ«dentiÄ; quae tua est prÅ«dentia, such is your prudence (lit. _of which prudence you are; which is your prudence_).

5. The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thus the boy I saw must be puer quem vÄ«dÄ«.

6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as,--

quÅ factum est, _by this it happened_;

quae cum ita sint, _since this is so_;

quibus rÄ“bus cognitÄ«s, when these things became known.

7. The Relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong grammatically to a clause which is subordinate to the one it introduces; as,--

numquam dignÄ“ satis laudÄrÄ« philosophia poterit, cui quÄ« pÄreat, omne tempus aetÄtis sine molestiÄ possit dÄ“gere, _philosophy can never be praised enough, since he who obeys her can pass every period of life without annoyance_ (lit. _he who obeys which, etc._).

Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with philosophia; but cui is governed by pÄreat, which is subordinate to possit.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

252. 1. Quis, any one, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands usually in combination with sÄ«, nisi, nÄ“, num; as,--

sÄ« quis putat, if any one thinks.

2. Aliquis (adj. aliquÄ«) is more definite than quis, and corresponds usually to the English some one, somebody, _some_; as,--

nunc aliquis dÄ«cat mihÄ«, _now let somebody tell me_;

utinam modo agÄtur aliquid, oh that something may be done.

3. QuÄ«dam, a certain one, is still more definite than aliquis; as,--

homÅ quÄ«dam, a certain man (i.e., _one whom I have in mind_).

a. QuÄ«dam (with or without quasi, _as if_) is sometimes used in the sense: a sort of, _kind of;_ as,--

cognÄtiÅ quaedam, _a sort of relationship_;

mors est quasi quaedam migrÄtiÅ, death is a kind of transfer as it were.

4. Quisquam, any one, any one whoever (more general than quis), and its corresponding adjective Å«llus, any, occur mostly in negative and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a negative, and in clauses of comparison; as,--

jÅ«stitia numquam nocet cuiquam, _justice never harms anybody_;

sÄ« quisquam, CatÅ sapiÄ“ns fuit, _if anybody was ever wise, Cato was_;

potestne quisquam sine perturbÄtiÅne animÄ« Ä«rÄscÄ«, _can anybody be angry without excitement?_

sÄ« Å«llÅ modÅ poterit, _if it can be done in any way_;

taetrior hÄ«c tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiÅrum, he was a viler tyrant than any of his predecessors.

5. Quisque, each one, is used especially under the following circumstances:--

a) In connection with suus. See Â§ 244, 4, a.

b) In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun; as,--

quod cuique obtigit, id teneat, _what falls to each, that let him hold_.

c) In connection with superlatives; as,--

optimus quisque, all the best (lit. _each best one_).

d) With ordinal numerals; as,--

quÄ«ntÅ quÅque annÅ, every four years (lit. _each fifth year_).

6. NÄ“mÅ, no one, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with adjectives used substantively; as,--

nÄ“mÅ mortÄlis, _no mortal_;

nÄ“mÅ RÅmÄnus, no Roman.

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.

253. 1. Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correlatively; as,--

aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, _he says one thing, he thinks another_;

aliÄ« resistunt, aliÄ« fugiunt, _some resist, others flee_;

alter exercitum perdidit, alter vÄ“ndidit, _one ruined the army, the other sold it_;

alterÄ« sÄ“ in montem recÄ“pÄ“runt, alterÄ« ad impedÄ«menta sÄ“ contulÄ“runt, _the one party retreated to the mountain, the others betook themselves to the baggage_.

2. Where the English says _one does one thing, another another_, the Latin uses a more condensed form of statement; as,--

alius aliud amat, _one likes one thing, another another_;

aliud aliÄ«s placet, _one thing pleases some, another others_.

a. So sometimes with adverbs; as,--

aliÄ« aliÅ fugiunt, _some flee in one direction, others in another_.

3. The Latin also expresses the notion '_each other_' by means of alius repeated; as,--

GallÄ« alius alium cohortÄtÄ« sunt, the Gauls encouraged each other.

4. CÄ“terÄ« means the rest, _all the others_; as,--

cÄ“terÄ«s praestÄre, to be superior to all the others.

5. ReliquÄ« means the others in the sense of the rest, those remaining,--hence is the regular word with numerals; as,--

reliquÄ« sex, the six others.

6. Nescio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with the force of _some one or other_; as,--

causidicus nescio quis, _some pettifogger or other_;

mÄ«sit nescio quem, _he sent some one or other_;

nescio quÅ pactÅ, somehow or other.

* * * * *

CHAPTER V.

--_Syntax of Verbs._

AGREEMENT.

With One Subject.

254. 1. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person; as,--

vÅs vidÄ“tis, _you see_;

pater fÄ«liÅs Ä«nstituit, the father trains his sons.

2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender; as,--

sÄ“ditiÅ repressa est, the mutiny was checked.

3. But when a predicate noun is of different gender or number from its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive; as,--

TarquiniÄ« mÄterna patria erat, _Tarquinii was his native country on his mother's side_;

nÅn omnis error stultitia est dÄ«cenda, not every error is to be called folly.

a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive; as,--

CoriolÄ«, oppidum VolscÅrum, captum est, _Corioli, a town of the Volsci, was captured_.

4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical form. Thus:--

a) In Number; as,--

multitÅ«dÅ hominum convÄ“nerant, a crowd of men had gathered.

b) In Gender; as,--

duo mÄ«lia crucibus adfÄ«xÄ« sunt, _two thousand (men) were crucified_.

With Two or More Subjects.

255. 1. Agreement in Number. With two or more subjects the verb is regularly plural; as,--

pater et fÄ«lius mortuÄ« sunt, the father and son died.

2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz.,--

a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between them; as,--

mortuus est pater et fÄ«lius;

pater mortuus est et fÄ«lius.

b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut ... aut; vel ... vel; neque ... neque; as,--

neque pater neque fÄ«lius mortuus est, neither father nor son died.

3. When the different subjects are felt together as constituting a whole, the singular is used; as,--

temeritÄs ignÅrÄtiÅque vitiÅsa est, rashness and ignorance are bad.

a. This is regularly the case in senÄtus populusque RÅmÄnus.

4. Agreement in Person. With compound subjects of different persons the verb always takes the first person rather than the second, and the second rather than the _third_; as,--

sÄ« tÅ« et Tullia valÄ“tis, ego et CicerÅ valÄ“mus, _if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well_.

5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid down for predicate adjectives. See Â§ 235, B, 2.

VOICES.

256. 1. The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original middle or reflexive meaning; as,--

ego nÅn patiar eum dÄ“fendÄ«, I shall not allow him to defend himself.

2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as acting not upon itself, but as doing something _in his own interest_; as,--

vÄ“lÄtus tempora, having veiled his temples.

a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used; as,--

tunicÄ indÅ«citur artÅ«s, he covers his limbs with a tunic.

3. Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive; as,--

curritur, people run (lit. _it is run_);

ventum est, he (they, etc.) came (lit. _it was come_).

TENSES.

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

257. 1. The Latin tenses express two distinct notions:--

a) The period of time to which the action belongs: Present, Past, or Future.

b) The _kind of action_: Undefined, Going on, or Completed.

The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three kinds of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically nine tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than one way, as may be seen by the following table:--

KIND OF PERIOD OF TIME. ACTION. PRESENT. PAST. FUTURE. UNDEFINED Present: Historical Future: scrÄ«bÅ, I write. Perfect: scrÄ«bam, _I shall scrÄ«psÄ«, I write. wrote_. GOING ON. Present: Imperfect: Future: scrÄ«bÅ, _I am scrÄ«bÄ“bam, _I was scrÄ«bam, I shall writing. writing_. be writing_. COMPLETED. Present Pluperfect: Future Perfect: Perfect: scrÄ«pseram, _I had scrÄ«pserÅ, _I scrÄ«psÄ«, I have written. shall have written_. written_.

2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action or action Going on; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a double use, according as it denotes action Completed in present time (Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical Perfect).

Principal and Historical Tenses.

258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are called Principal (or Primary) Tenses, those which denote Past time are called Historical (or Secondary).

The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are: Present, Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect.

The Historical Tenses are: Imperfect, Historical Perfect, Pluperfect.

Present Indicative.

259. Besides the two uses indicated in the table, the Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities:--

1. It is used to denote a general truth, i.e. something true not merely in the present but at all times ('Gnomic Present'); as,--

virtÅ«s conciliat amÄ«citiÄs et cÅnservat, virtue establishes ties of friendship and maintains them (i.e. always does so).

2. It is used of an attempted action ('Conative Present'); as,--

dum vÄ«tant vitia, in contrÄria currunt, while they try to avoid (vÄ«tant) _vices, they rush into opposite ones_.

3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action ('Historical Present'); as,--

Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, Caesar demanded a large number of hostages (lit. _demands_).

4. In combination with jam, jam diÅ«, jam prÄ«dem, and similar words, the Present is frequently used of an action originating in the past and continuing in the present; as,--

jam prÄ«dem cupiÅ tÄ“ vÄ«sere, I have long been desiring to visit you (i.e. I desire and have long desired).

Imperfect Indicative.

260. 1. The Imperfect primarily denotes action _going on in past time_; as,--

librum legÄ“bam, I was reading a book.

a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve as the tense of description (as opposed to mere _narration_).

2. From the notion of action going on, there easily develops the notion of repeated or customary action; as,--

lÄ“gÄtÅs interrogÄbat, _he kept asking the envoys_;

C. DuÄ«lium vidÄ“bam puer, as a boy I often used to see Gaius Duilius.

3. The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Imperfect') or an action as beginning ('Inceptive Imperfect'); as,--

hostÄ“s nostrÅs intrÄ mÅ«nÄ«tiÅnÄ“s prÅgredÄ« prohibÄ“bant, the enemy tried to prevent (prohibÄ“bant) our men from advancing within the fortifications ('Conative');

ad proelium sÄ“ expediÄ“bant, they were beginning to get ready for battle ('Inceptive').

4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diÅ«, jam dÅ«dum, etc., is sometimes used of an action which had been continuing some time; as,--

domicilium RÅmae multÅs jam annÅs habÄ“bat, he had had his residence at Rome for many years (i.e. he had it at this time and had long had it).

Future Indicative.

261. 1. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than is the English. We say: '_If he comes, I shall be glad_,' where we really mean: 'If he shall come,' etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits the Present, but generally employs the Future.

2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dÄ«cÄ“s, _say!_

Perfect Indicative.

262. A. PRESENT PERFECT. Several Present Perfects denote the state resulting from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the Present; as,--

nÅvÄ«, cognÅvÄ«, I know (lit. _I have become acquainted with_);

cÅnsuÄ“vÄ«, I am wont (lit. _I have become accustomed_).

B. HISTORICAL PERFECT. The Historical Perfect is the tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of _description_); as,--

RÄ“gulus in senÄtum vÄ“nit, mandÄta exposuit, reddÄ« captivÅs negÄvit esse Å«tile, _Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his commission, said it was useless for captives to be returned_.

1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth ('Gnomic Perfect').

Pluperfect Indicative.

263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Perfect, denotes an act _completed in the past_; as,--

Caesar RhÄ“num trÄnsÄ«re dÄ“crÄ“verat, sed nÄvÄ“s deerant, _Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats_.

a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (Â§ 262, A), the Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as,--

nÅveram, I knew.

Future Perfect Indicative.

264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in future time. Thus:--

scrÄ«bam epistulam, cum redieris, I will write the letter when you have returned (lit. _when you shall have returned_).

a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Perfect than the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.

b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (Â§ 262, A) the Future Perfect has the force of a Future; as,--

nÅverÅ, I shall know.

Epistolary Tenses.

265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appropriate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect; as,--

nihil habÄ“bam quod scrÄ«berem, neque enim novÄ« quidquam audieram et ad tuÄs omnÄ“s epistulÄs jam rescrÄ«pseram, _I have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have already answered all your letters_.

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

266. A. In Independent sentences. See Â§Â§ 272-280.

B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called

Sequence of Tenses.

267. 1. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.

2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are followed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus:--

PRINCIPAL SEQUENCE,--

videÅ quid faciÄs, I see what you are doing.

vidÄ“bÅ quid faciÄs, I shall see what you are doing.

vÄ«derÅ quid faciÄs, I shall have seen what you are doing.

videÅ quid fÄ“cerÄ«s, I see what you have done.

vidÄ“bÅ quid fÄ“cerÄ«s, I shall see what you have done.

vÄ«derÅ quid fÄ“cerÄ«s, I shall have seen what you have done.

HISTORICAL SEQUENCE,--

vidÄ“bam quid facerÄ“s, I saw what you were doing.

vÄ«dÄ« quid facerÄ“s, I saw what you were doing.

vÄ«deram quid facerÄ“s, I had seen what you were doing.

vidÄ“bam quid fÄ“cissÄ“s, I saw what you had done.

vÄ«dÄ« quid fÄ“cissÄ“s, I saw what you had done.

vÄ«deram quid fÄ“cissÄ“s, I had seen what you had done.

3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative.

Peculiarities of Sequence.

268. 1. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as,--

dÄ“mÅnstrÄvÄ« quÄrÄ“ ad causam accÄ“derem, I have shown why I took the case (lit. I showed why, etc.).

2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be historical; as,--

videor ostendisse quÄlÄ“s deÄ« essent, I seem to have shown of what nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indicative, ostendÄ«, _I showed_).

3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, sometimes as historical. Thus:--

Sulla suÅs hortÄtur ut fortÄ« animÅ sint, _Sulla exhorts his soldiers to be stout-hearted_;

GallÅs hortÄtur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take arms.

4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses; as,--

honestum tÄle est ut, vel sÄ« ignÅrÄrent id hominÄ“s, suÄ tamen pulchritÅ«dine laudabÄ«le esset, _virtue is such a thing that even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own loveliness_.

5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imperfect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as,--

sÄ« sÅlÅs eÅs dÄ«cerÄ“s miserÅs, quibus moriendum esset, nÄ“minem tÅ« quidem eÅrum quÄ« vÄ«verent exciperÄ“s, _if you called only those wretched who must die, you would except no one of those who live_.

6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus:--

rÄ“x tantum mÅtus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem jÅ«dicÄrit, the king was so much moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an enemy.

This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and subsequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus, jÅ«dicÄrit in the above example corresponds to adjÅ«dicÄvit, he adjudged. To denote a result as something continuous, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.

7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus:

a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical tense; as,--

VerrÄ“s Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restituÄ« nÅn possit, Verres so ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored (Direct statement: nÅn potest restitui);

ÄrdÄ“bat HortÄ“nsius dÄ«cendÄ« cupiditÄte sÄ«c, ut in nÅ«llÅ flagrantius studium vÄ«derim, Hortensius burned so with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a greater desire (Direct statement: in nÅ«llÅ vÄ«dÄ«, _I have seen in no one_).

NOTE.--This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense; there the Perfect was used as an historical tense.

b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Subjunctive used historically; as,--

nesciÅ quid causae fuerit cÅ«r nÅ«llÄs ad mÄ“ litterÄs darÄ“s, I do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter.

Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect Subjunctive.

Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.

269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows:--

1. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the Imperfect after historical tenses.

b) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.

This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to future time. Thus:--

GallÄ« pollicentur sÄ“ factÅ«rÅs, quae Caesar imperet, _the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall order_;

GallÄ« pollicÄ“bantur sÄ“ factÅ«rÅs, quae Caesar imperÄret, _the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should order_;

GallÄ« pollicentur sÄ“ factÅ«rÅs quae Caesar imperÄverit, _the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered_;

GallÄ« pollicÄ“bantur sÄ“ factÅ«rÅs quae Caesar imperÄvisset, _the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered._

2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus:--

timeÅ nÄ“ veniat, _I am afraid he will come_;

Caesar exspectÄbat quid cÅnsilÄ« hostÄ“s caperent, Caesar was waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt.

3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms in -Å«rus sim and -Å«rus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after nÅn dubitÅ quÄ«n; as,--

nÅn dubitÅ quÄ«n pater ventÅ«rus sit, _I do not doubt that my father will come_;

nÅn dubitÄbam quÄ«n pater ventÅ«rus esset, I did not doubt that my father would come.

4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevÄ«, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive; as,--

nÅn dubitÅ quÄ«n tÄ“ mox hÅ«jus reÄ« paeniteat, _I do not doubt that you will soon repent of this thing;_

nÅn dubitÄbam quÄ«n haec rÄ“s brevÄ« cÅnficerÄ“tur, _I did not doubt that this thing would soon be fnished._

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

270. 1. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but _with reference to the verb on which they depend._ Thus:--

a) The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with the time of the verb on which it depends; as,--

vidÄ“tur honÅrÄ“s adsequÄ«, _he seems to be gaining honors_;

vidÄ“bÄtur honÅrÄ“s adsequÄ«, he seemed to be gaining honors.

b) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time of the verb on which it depends; as,--

vidÄ“tur honÅrÄ“s adsecÅ«tus esse, _he seems to have gained honors_;

vÄ«sus est honÅrÄ“s adsecÅ«tus esse, he seemed to have gained honors.

c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of the verb on which it depends; as,--

vidÄ“tur honÅrÄ“s adsecÅ«tÅ«rus esse, _he seems to be about to gain honors_;

vÄ«sus est honÅrÄ“s adsecÅ«tÅ«rus esse, he seemed to be about to gain honors.

2. Where the English says 'ought to have done,' 'might have done,' etc., the Latin uses dÄ“buÄ«, oportuit, potuÄ« (dÄ“bÄ“bam, oportÄ“bat, poteram), with the Present Infinitive; as,--

dÄ“buit dÄ«cere, he ought to have said (lit. _owed it to say_);

opÅrtuit venÄ«re, _he ought to have come_;

potuit vidÄ“re, he might have seen.

a. Oportuit, volÅ, nÅlÅ (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as,--

hÅc jam prÄ«dem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to have been done.

3. PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE INFINITIVE. Verbs that have no Participial Stem, express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or futÅ«rum esse ut, with the Subjunctive; as,--

spÄ“rÅ fore ut tÄ“ paeniteat levitÄtis, I hope you will repent of your fickleness (lit. _hope it will happen that you repent_);

spÄ“rÅ futÅ«rum esse ut hostÄ“s arceantur, I hope that the enemy will be kept off.

a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem; as,--

spÄ“rÅ fore ut hostÄ“s vincantur, I hope the enemy will be conquered.

4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infinitive with fore; as,--

spÄ“rÅ epistulam scrÄ«ptam fore, _I hope the letter will have been written_;

dÄ«cÅ mÄ“ satis adeptum fore, I say that I shall have gained enough.

THE MOODS.

MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

The Indicative in Independent Sentences.

271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts, the supposition of facts, or inquiry after facts.

1. Note the following idiomatic uses:--

a) With possum; as,--

possum multa dÄ«cere, _I might say much_;

poteram multa dÄ«cere, I might have said much (Â§ 270, 2).

b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile est, Å«tilius est, and some others; as,--

longum est ea dÄ«cere, _it would be tedious to tell that_;

difficile est omnia persequÄ«, it would be difficult to enumerate everything.

The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.

272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something--

1. As willed--Volitive Subjunctive; 2. As desired--Optative Subjunctive; 3. Conceived of as possible--Potential Subjunctive.

VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action as willed. It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties:--

A. HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE.

274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhortation. This use is confined to the first person plural of the Present. The negative is nÄ“. Thus:--

eÄmus, _let us go_;

amÄ“mus patriam, _let us love our country_;

nÄ“ dÄ“spÄ“rÄ“mus, let us not despair.

B. JUSSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command. The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and is used--

1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as,--

dÄ«cat, _let him tell_;

dÄ«cant, _let them tell_;

quÄrÄ“ sÄ“cÄ“dant improbÄ«, _wherefore let the wicked depart!_

2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite force; as,--

istÅ bonÅ Å«tÄre, _use that advantage_;

modestÄ“ vÄ«vÄs, live temperately.

C. PROHIBITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third persons singular and plural, with nÄ“, to express a prohibition. Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning; as,--

nÄ“ repugnÄ“tis, _do not resist!_

tÅ« vÄ“rÅ istam nÄ“ relÄ«querÄ«s, _don't leave her!_

impiÄ« nÄ“ plÄcÄre audeant deÅs, _let not the impious dare to appease the gods!_

a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.

b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second person is by the use of nÅlÄ« (nÅlÄ«te) with a following infinitive, or by cavÄ“ or cavÄ“ nÄ“ with the Subjunctive; as,--

nÅlÄ« hÅc facere, _don't do this_ (lit. _be unwilling to do_)!

nÅlÄ«te mentÄ«rÄ«, _do not lie!_

cavÄ“ ignÅscÄs, cavÄ“ tÄ“ misereat, _do not forgive, do not pity!_

cavÄ“ nÄ“ haec faciÄs, do not do this (lit. _take care lest you do_)!

D. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used _in questions and exclamations implying doubt, indignation, the impossibility of an act, obligation, or propriety_. The Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past. The negative is nÅn. Thus:--

quid faciam, _what shall I do?_

ego redeam, _I go back!_

huic cÄ“dÄmus! hÅ«jus condiciÅnÄ“s audiÄmus! _are we to bow to him! are we to listen to his terms!_

quid facerem, _what was I to do?_

hunc ego nÅn dÄ«ligam, _should I not cherish this man?_

a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in character, and do not expect an answer.

E. CONCESSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for the sake of argument. The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past. The negative is nÄ“. Thus:--

sit hÅc vÄ“rum, I grant that this is true (lit. _let this be true_);

nÄ“ sint in senectÅ«te vÄ«rÄ“s, _I grant there is not strength in old age_;

fuerit malus cÄ«vis aliÄ«s; tibi quandÅ esse coepit, _I grant that he was a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward you?_

OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.

279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing. The negative is regularly nÄ“.

1. The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of as possible.

dÄ« istaec prohibeant, _may the gods prevent that!_

falsus utinam vÄtÄ“s sim, _oh that I may be a false prophet!_

nÄ“ veniant, _may they not come!_

2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the _regret that something is not so now_; the Pluperfect that something was not so in the past. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam; as,--

utinam istud ex animÅ dÄ«cerÄ“s, would that you were saying that in earnest (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest);

PÄ“lÄ«dÄ“s utinam vÄ«tÄsset Apollinis arcÅ«s, _would that Achilles had escaped the bow of Apollo_;

utinam nÄ“ nÄtus essem, would that I had not been born.

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.

280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses a possibility. The negative is nÅn. The following uses are to be noted:--

1. The 'May' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may designate a mere possibility (English auxiliary _may_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--

dÄ«cat aliquis, _some one may say_;

dÄ«xerit aliquis, some one may say.

a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples.

2. 'Should'-'Would' Potential.--The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as depending upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxiliary should, _would_). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus:--

fortÅ«nam citius reperiÄs quam retineÄs, one would more quickly find Fortune than keep it (i.e. if one should make the trial);

crÄ“diderim, I should believe.

a. Here belongs the use of velim, mÄlim, nÅlim, as softened forms of statement for volÅ, mÄlÅ, nÅlÅ. Thus:--

velim mihi ignÅscÄs, _I wish you would forgive me_;

nÅlim putÄ“s mÄ“ jocÄrÄ«, _I don't want you to think I'm joking_.

b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of Conditional Sentences (see Â§ 303); as,--

diÄ“s dÄ“ficiat, sÄ« cÅner Ä“numerÄre causÄs, _time would fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reasons._

3. 'Can'-'Could' Potential.--In the Present and Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singular (with indefinite force; Â§ 356, 3) of a few verbs of perceiving, seeing, thinking, and the like; as,--

videÄs, cernÄs, one can see, _one can perceive_;

crÄ“derÄ“s, _one could believe_;

vidÄ“rÄ“s, cernerÄ“s, one could see, _perceive_;

putÄrÄ“s, one could imagine.

4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see Â§ 304) are also Potential in character. By omission of the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone, particularly vellem, nÅllem, mÄllem; as,--

vellem id quidem, I should wish that (i.e. were I bold enough).

The Imperative.

281. The Imperative is used in commands, admonitions and entreaties (negative nÄ“), as,--

Ä“gredere ex urbe, _depart from the city_;

mihi ignÅsce, _pardon me_;

valÄ“, farewell.

1. The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed--

a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the apodosis of conditional sentences; as,--

rem vÅbÄ«s prÅpÅnam; vÅs eam penditÅte, _I will lay the matter before you; do you (then) consider it_;

sÄ« bene disputÄbit, tribuitÅ litterÄ«s Graecis, _if he shall speak well, attribute it to Greek literature._

b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc.; as,--

cÅnsulÄ“s summum jÅ«s habentÅ, _the consuls shall have supreme power_;

hominem mortuom in urbe nÄ“ sepelÄ«tÅ, _no one shall bury a dead body in the city_;

amÄ«citia rÄ“gÄ« AntiochÅ cum populÅ RÅmÄnÅ hÄ«s legibus et condiciÅnibus estÅ, _let there be friendship between Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms and conditions_;

quÄrtae estÅ partis MÄrcus hÄ“rÄ“s, _let Marcus be heir to a fourth (of the property_);

ignÅscitÅ saepe alterÄ«, numquam tibi, _forgive your neighbor often, yourself never_.

2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See Â§ 276, b.

3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quÄ«n (_why not?_) are often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,--

quÄ«n abÄ«s, _go away!_ (lit. _why don't you go away?_);

quÄ«n vÅcem continÄ“tis, _keep still!_ (lit. _why don't you stop your voices?_);

quÄ«n equÅs cÅnscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. _why do we not mount our horses?_)

MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.

Clauses of Purpose.

282. 1. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most commonly by ut (utÄ«), quÅ (that, _in order that_), nÄ“ (_in order that not, lest_), and stand in the Subjunctive, as,--

edimus ut vÄ«vÄmus, _we eat that we may live;_

adjÅ«tÄ mÄ“ quÅ hÅc fÄ«at facilius, _help me, in order that this may be done more easily;_

portÄs clausit, nÄ“ quam oppidÄnÄ« injÅ«riam acciperent, _he closed the gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury._

a. QuÅ, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur; as,--

haec faciunt quÅ ChremÄ“tem absterreant, _they are doing this in order to frighten Chremes._

b. Ut nÄ“ is sometimes found instead of nÄ“. Thus:--

ut nÄ“ quid neglegenter agÄmus, in order that we may not do anything carelessly.

c. Ut nÅn (not nÄ“) is used where the negation belongs to some single word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus:--

ut nÅn Ä“jectus ad aliÄ“nÅs, sed invÄ«tÄtus ad tuÅs videÄre, _that you may seem not driven out among strangers, but invited to your own friends._

d. To say '_and that not_' or 'or that not,' the Latin regularly uses nÄ“ve (neu); as,--

ut eÄrum rÄ“rum vÄ«s minuerÄ“tur, neu pontÄ« nocÄ“rent, _that the violence of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the bridge_;

profÅ«git, nÄ“ caperÄ“tur nÄ“ve interficerÄ“tur, _he fled, that he might not be captured or killed._

e. But neque (for nÄ“ve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first clause is introduced by nÄ“.

f. Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun: as,--

hÄc causÄ, ut pÄcem habÄ“rent, _on this account, that they might have peace._

2. A Relative Pronoun (quÄ«) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quÅ) is frequently used to introduce a Purpose Clause; as,--

HelvÄ“tiÄ« lÄ“gÄtÅs mittunt, quÄ« dÄ«cerent, the Helvetii sent envoys to say (lit. _who should say_);

haec habuÄ«, dÄ“ senectÅ«te quae dÄ«cerem, _I had these things to say about old age_;

nÅn habÄ“bant quÅ sÄ“ reciperent, they had no place to which to flee (lit. _whither they might flee_).

a. QuÄ« in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc.; ubi to ut ibi; unde to ut inde; quÅ to ut eÅ.

3. Relative Clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and idÅneus; as,--

idÅneus fuit nÄ“mÅ quem imitÄrÄ“re, there was no one suitable for you to imitate (cf. nÄ“mÅ fuit quem imitÄrÄ“re, _there was no one for you to imitate_);

dignus est quÄ« aliquandÅ imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime.

4. Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sentences; as,--

ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, _to pass over all this,_ (_I will say that_) we departed.

Clauses of Characteristic.

283. 1. A relative clause used to express a quality or characteristic of a general or indefinite antecedent is called a Clause of Characteristic, and usually stands in the Subjunctive; as,--

multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, _there are many things which sharpen the wits._

Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and which therefore take the Indicative; as,--

CatÅ, senex jÅ«cundus, quÄ« SapiÄ“ns appellÄtus est, _Cato, a delightful old man, who was called 'The Wise.'_

The Clause of Characteristic implies '_a person of the sort that does something_'; the Indicative relative clause implies 'a particular person who does something.'

2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as, est quÄ«; sunt quÄ«; nÄ“mÅ est quÄ«; nÅ«llus est quÄ«; Å«nus est quÄ«; sÅlus est quÄ«; quis est quÄ«; is quÄ«; etc. Thus:--

sunt quÄ« dÄ«cant, _there are (some) who say_;

nÄ“mÅ est quÄ« nesciat, _there is nobody who is ignorant_;

sapientia est Å«na quae maestitiam pellat, _philosophy is the only thing that drives away sorrow_;

quae cÄ«vitÄs est quae nÅn Ä“vertÄ« possit, _what state is there that cannot be overthrown?_

nÅn is sum quÄ« improbÅs laudem, _I am not the sort of man that praises the wicked._

a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of characteristic is used after comparatives; as,--

nÅn longius hostÄ“s aberant quam quÅ tÄ“lum adigÄ« posset, the enemy were not too far off for a dart to reach them (lit. _further off than [a point] to which a dart could be cast_).

3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause (_since_) or opposition (_although_). Thus:--

a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quÄ«ppe, utpote; as,--

Å fortÅ«nÄte adulÄ“scÄ“ns, quÄ« tuae virtÅ«tis HomÄ“rum praecÅnem invÄ“nerÄ«s, _O fortunate man, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your valor_;

ut quÄ« optimÅ jÅ«re eam prÅvinciam obtinuerit, since he held that province by excellent right.

b) Opposition:--

egomet quÄ« sÄ“rÅ GraecÄs litterÄs attigissem, tamen complÅ«rÄ“s diÄ“s AthÄ“nÄ«s commorÄtus sum, _I, although I had taken up Greek literature late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens_.

4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quÄ«n = quÄ« (quae, quod) nÅn; as,--

nÄ“mÅ est quÄ«n saepe audierit, _there is no one who has not often heard_;

nÄ“mÅ fuit mÄ«litum quÄ«n vulnerÄrÄ“tur, there was no one of the soldiers who was not wounded.

5. Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type:

quod sciam, _so far as I know_; quem (quam, quod), audierim, so far as I have heard.

Clauses of Result.

284. 1. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut (that, _so that_), negative ut nÅn (_so that not_), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantus, tÄlis, tot, is (= tÄlis), tam, ita, sÄ«c, adeÅ, or some similar word. Thus:--

quis tam dÄ“mÄ“ns est ut suÄ voluntÄte maereat, _who is so senseless as to mourn of his own volition?_

Siciliam ita vÄstÄvit ut restituÄ« in antÄ«quum statum nÅn possit, _he so ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former condition_;

mÅns altissimus impendÄ“bat, ut facile perpaucÄ« prohibÄ“re possent, _a very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop them_;

nÅn is es ut tÄ“ pudor umquam Ä turpitÅ«dine ÄvocÄrit, you are not so constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness.

2. A Result Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, quÄ« (= ut is), quÅ (= ut eÅ), etc.; as,--

nÄ“mÅ est tam senex quÄ« sÄ“ annum nÅn putet posse vÄ«vere, _nobody is so old as not to think he can live a year_;

habÄ“tis eum cÅnsulem quÄ« pÄrÄ“re vestrÄ«s dÄ“crÄ“tÄ«s nÅn dubitet, you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees.

a. These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to the Clause of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two constructions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.

3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quÄ«n = ut nÅn; as,--

nihil tam difficile est quÄ«n quaerendÅ invÄ“stÄ«gÄrÄ« possit, _nothing is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching_;

nÄ“mÅ est tam fortis quÄ«n reÄ« novitÄte perturbÄ“tur, no one is so steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence.

4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result after comparatives; as,--

urbs erat mÅ«nÄ«tior quam ut prÄ«mÅ impetÅ« capÄ« posset, the city was too strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack (lit. _more strongly fortified than [so] that it could be taken, etc._).

Causal Clauses.

285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the following particles:--

1. Quod, quia, quoniam. 2. Cum. 3. QuandÅ.

286. The use of moods is as follows:--

1. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is _that of the writer or speaker;_ they take the Subjunctive when the reason is viewed _as that of another._ Thus:--

ParthÅs timeÅ quod diffÄ«dÅ cÅpiÄ«s nostrÄ«s, _I fear the Parthians, because I distrust our troops_.

ThemistoclÄ“s, quia nÅn tÅ«tus erat, Corcyram dÄ“migrÄvit, _Themistocles, since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra_.

neque mÄ“ vÄ«xisse paenitet, quoniam bene vÄ«xÄ«, _I do not regret having lived, since I have lived well_.

SÅcratÄ“s accÅ«sÄtus est quod corrumperet juventÅ«tem, Socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young. (Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser. Hence the Subjunctive.)

HaeduÄ« CaesarÄ« grÄtiÄs Ä“gÄ“runt quod sÄ“ perÄ«culÅ lÄ«berÄvisset, the Haedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger. (The reason of the Haedui.)

quoniam MiltiadÄ“s dÄ«cere nÅn posset, verba prÅ eÅ fÄ“cit TÄ«sagorÄs, _since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him_. (The reason of Tisagoras.)

noctÅ« ambulÄbat ThemistoclÄ“s, quod somnum capere nÅn posset, _Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he couldn't sleep_.

a. Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunctive in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying, and not the contents of the thought or language, constituted the reason. Thus:--

BellovacÄ« suum numerum nÅn complÄ“vÄ“runt quod sÄ“ suÅ nÅmine cum RÅmÄnÄ«s bellum gestÅ«rÅs dÄ«cerent, _the Bellovaci did not furnish their complement, because they said they were going to wage war with the Romans on their own account_.

b. NÅn quod, nÅn quÅ (by attraction for nÅn eÅ quod), nÅn quia, not that, _not because_; and nÅn quod nÅn, nÅn quÅ nÅn, nÅn quÄ«n, _not that ... not_; _not because ... not_; not but that, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive; as,--

id fÄ“cÄ«, nÅn quod vÅs hanc dÄ“fÄ“nsiÅnem dÄ“sÄ«derÄre arbitrÄrer, sed ut omnÄ“s intellegerent, _this I did, not because I thought you needed this defense, but that all might perceive_;

CrassÅ commendÄtiÅnem nÅn sum pollicitus, nÅn quÄ«n eam valitÅ«ram apud tÄ“ arbitrÄrer, sed egÄ“re mihi commendÄtiÅne nÅn vidÄ“bÄtur, _I did not promise a recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it would have weight with you, but because he did not seem to me to need recommendation_.

c. But clauses introduced by nÅn quod, nÅn quÄ«a take the Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for something; as,--

hÅc ita sentiÅ, nÅn quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sÄ«c exÄ«stimÄre nÅs est necesse, _this I think, not because I am myself an augur (which I really am), but because it is necessary for us to think so_.

2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as,--

quae cum Ä«ta sint, _since this is so_;

cum sÄ«s mortÄlis, quae mortÄlia sunt, cÅ«rÄ, _since you are mortal, care for what is mortal_.

a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), _especially since;_ as,--

HaeduÅs accÅ«sat, praesertim cum eÅrum precibus adductus bellum suscÄ“perit, _he blamed the Haedui, especially since he had undertaken the war at their entreaties_.

3. QuandÅ (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the Indicative; as,--

id omittÅ, quandÅ vÅbÄ«s ita placet, _I pass over that, since you so wish_.

Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, Simul ac, etc.

287. 1. Postquam (posteÄquam), _after_; ut, ubi, _when_; cum prÄ«mum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as, when used to refer to a single past act regularly take the Perfect Indicative; as,--

EpamÄ«nÅndÄs postquam audÄ«vit vÄ«cisse BoeÅtiÅs, 'Satis' inquit 'vÄ«xÄ«,' _Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had conquered, said, 'I have lived enough;'_

id ut audÄ«vit, Corcyram dÄ“migrÄvit, _when he heard this, he moved to Corcyra_;

Caesar cum prÄ«mum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, _Caesar, as soon as he could, hurried to the army_;

ubi dÄ“ Caesaris adventÅ« certiÅrÄ“s factÄ« sunt, lÄ“gÄtÅs ad eum mittunt, _when they were informed of Caesar's arrival, they sent envoys to him_.

a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this construction.

2. To denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, as often as, when following an historical tense, take the Pluperfect Indicative (compare Â§Â§ 288, 3; 302, 3); as,--

ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumiÄs statim coniciÄ“bÄtur, _whenever anybody had offended Verres's feelings, he was forthwith put in the stone-quarry_;

hostÄ“s, ubi aliquÅs Ä“gredientÄ“s cÅnspexerant, adoriÄ“bantur, _whenever the enemy had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them_.

a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act ('Indefinite Frequency'); as,--

id ubi dÄ«xisset hastam mittÄ“bat, _whenever he had said that, he hurled a spear_.

3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluperfect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years, etc.), such as post tertium annum quam, trienniÅ postquam. Thus:--

quÄ«nque post diÄ“bus quam LÅ«cÄ discesserat, ad Sardiniam vÄ“nit _five days after he had departed from Luca he came to Sardinia_;

postquam occupÄtae SyrÄcÅ«sae erant, profectus est CarthÄginem, _after Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage_.

4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote _a continued state;_ as,--

postquam RÅmam adventÄbant, senÄtus cÅnsultus est, _after they were on the march toward Rome, the Senate was consulted_;

postquam strÅ«ctÄ« utrimque stÄbant, after they had been drawn up on both sides and were in position.

5. Rarely postquam, posteÄquam, following the analogy of cum, take the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses; as,--

posteÄquam sÅ«mptuÅsa fieri fÅ«nera coepissent, lÄ“ge sublÄta sunt, _after funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law_.

Temporal Clauses introduced by Cum.

A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.

288. 1. Cum, when referring to the past, takes,--

A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote the point of time at which something occurs.

B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote the situation or circumstances under which something occurs.

Examples:--

INDICATIVE.

an tum erÄs cÅnsul, cum in PalÄtiÅ mea domus ÄrdÄ“bat, _or were you consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine?_

crÄ“dÅ tum cum Sicilia flÅrÄ“bat opibus et cÅpiÄ«s magna artificia fuisse in eÄ Ä«nsulÄ, _I believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful in riches and resources there were great crafts in that island_;

eÅ tempore pÄruit cum pÄrÄ“re necesse erat, _he obeyed at the time when it was necessary to obey_;

illÅ diÄ“, cum est lÄta lÄ“x dÄ“ mÄ“, on that day when the law concerning me was passed.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

Lysander cum vellet LycÅ«rgÄ« lÄ“gÄ“s commÅ«tÄre, prohibitus est, _when Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was prevented_;

PythagorÄs cum in geÅmetriÄ quiddam novÄ« invÄ“nisset, MÅ«sÄ«s bovem immolÄsse dÄ«citur, _when Pythagoras had discovered something new in geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses_.

a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has tum, eÅ diÄ“, eÅ annÅ, eÅ tempore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.

2. Cum Inversum. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of when, when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix, aegrÄ“, nÅndum; as,--

jam GallÄ« ex oppidÅ fugere apparÄbant, cum mÄtrÄ“s familiae repente prÅcurrÄ“runt, _the Gauls were already preparing to flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth_ (logically, _the matrons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparing to flee_);

TrÄ“virÄ« LabiÄ“num adorÄ«rÄ« parÄbant, cum duÄs legiÅnÄ“s vÄ“nisse cognÅscunt, _the Treviri were preparing to attack, when (suddenly) they learned that two legions had arrived_.

3. To denote a recurring action in the past, cum is followed by the Indicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare Â§Â§ 287, 2; 302, 3); as,--

cum Äd aliquod oppidum vÄ“nerat, eÄdem lectÄ«cÄ ad cubiculum dÄ“ferÄ“bÄtur, _whenever he had arrived at some town, he was (always) carried in the same litter to his room_;

cum equitÄtus noster sÄ“ in agrÅs Ä“jÄ“cerat, essedÄriÅs ex silvÄ«s Ä“mittÄ“bat, _whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would send his charioteers out from the woods_.

a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used; as,--

saepe cum aliquem vidÄ“ret minus bene vestÄ«tum, suum amiculum dedit, _often, wherever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his own mantle_;

cum prÅcucurrissent, Numidae effugiÄ“bant, _as often as they had advanced, the Numidians ran away_.

This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.

B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.

289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regularly takes the Indicative; as,--

tum tua rÄ“s agitur, pariÄ“s cum proximus Ärdet, _your own interests are at stake when your neighbor's house is burning_;

cum vidÄ“bis, tum sciÄ“s, _when you see, then you will know._

a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a _recurring action;_ as,--

stabilitÄs amÄ«citiae cÅnfirmÄrÄ« potest, cum hominÄ“s cupÄ«dinibus imperÄbunt, _firm friendship can be established whenever men shall control their desires._

C. OTHER USES OF Cum.

290. 1. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is sometimes used to indicate the identity of one act with another; as,--

cum tacent clÄmant, their silence is a shout (lit. _when they are silent, they shout_).

2. Cum ... tum. When cum ... tum mean _both ... and_, the cum-clause is in the Indicative; but when cum has the force of while, though, it may take the Subjunctive; as,--

cum tÄ“ semper dÄ«lÄ“xerim, tum tuÄ«s factÄ«s incÄ“nsus sum, _while I have always loved you, at the same time I am stirred by your conduct_.

Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusquam.

A. WITH THE INDICATIVE.

291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante ... quam, prius ... quam) take the Indicative to denote an actual fact.

1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect; as,--

prius respondÄ“s quam rogÅ, _you answer before I ask_;

nihil contrÄ disputÄbÅ priusquam dÄ«xerit, _I will say nothing in opposition, before he speaks_.

2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as,--

nÅn prius jugulandÄ« fÄ«nis fuit, quam Sulla omnÄ“s suÅs dÄ«vitiÄ«s explÄ“vit, there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied all his henchmen with wealth.

B. WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to denote an act as anticipated.

1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote--

a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place; as,--

priusquam dÄ«micÄrent, foedus Ä«ctum est, _i.e. in anticipation of the fight, a treaty was struck._

By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of general truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out; as,--

tempestÄs minÄtur antequam surgat, the tempest threatens before it rises.

b) An act anticipated and forestalled; as,--

priusquam tÄ“lum adicÄ« posset, omnis aciÄ“s terga vertit, _before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled._

c) An act anticipated and deprecated; as,--

animum omittunt priusquam locÅ dÄ“migrent, _they die rather than quit their post._

2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, especially by some writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically vanished; as,--

sÅl antequam sÄ“ abderet fugientem vÄ«dit AntÅnium, _the sun before it set saw Antony fleeing._

Clauses introduced by Dum, _DÅnec_, Quoad.

293. 1. Dum, while, regularly takes the Indicative of the Historical Present; as,--

Alexander, dum inter prÄ«mÅrÄ“s pugnat, sagittÄ ictus est, _Alexander, while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow_;

dum haec geruntur, in fÄ«nÄ“s VenellÅrum pervÄ“nit, _while these things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli_.

II. Dum, dÅnec, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative; as,--

dum anima est, spÄ“s est, _as long as there is life, there is hope_;

LacedaemoniÅrum gÄ“ns fortis fuit, dum LycÅ«rgÄ« lÄ“gÄ“s vigÄ“bant, _the race of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the laws of Lycurgus were in force_;

CatÅ, quoad vÄ«xit, virtÅ«tum laude crÄ“vit, _Cato, at long as he lived, increased in the fame of his virtues_.

III. Dum, dÅnec, and quoad, until, take:--

1. The Indicative, to denote _an actual event_; as,--

dÅnec rediit, fuit silentium, _there was silence till he came_;

ferrum in corpore retinuit, quoad renÅ«ntiÄtum est BoeÅtiÅs vÄ«cisse, he kept the iron in his body until word was brought that the Boeotians had conquered.

a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and dÅnec in this sense often take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative; as,--

trepidÄtiÅnis aliquantum Ä“dÄ“bant dÅnec timor quiÄ“tem fÄ“cisset, _they showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet_.

2. The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or _expectancy_; as,--

exspectÄvit Caesar dum nÄvÄ“s convenÄ«rent, _Caesar waited for the ships to assemble_;

dum litterae veniant, morÄbor, I shall wait for the letter to come.

Substantive Clauses.

294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or stands in some other case relation.

A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.

295. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive are used with the following classes of verbs:--

1. With verbs signifying to admonish, request, command, urge, persuade, induce,[51] etc. (conjunctions ut, nÄ“, or ut nÄ“); as,--

postulÅ ut fÄ«at, I demand that it be done (dependent form of the Jussive fÄ«at, _let it be done!_);

Årat, nÄ“ abeÄs, _he begs that you will not go away_;

mÄ«litÄ“s cohortÄtus est ut hostium impetum sustinÄ“rent, _he exhorted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy_;

HelvÄ“tiÄ«s persuÄsit ut exÄ«rent, he persuaded the Helvetii to march forth.

a. JubeÅ, command, order, regularly takes the Infinitive.

2. With verbs signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow,[52] etc. (conjunction ut); as,--

huic concÄ“dÅ ut ea praetereat, I allow him to pass that by (dependent form of the Jussive ea praetereat, _let him pass that by!_);

cÅnsulÄ« permissum est ut duÄs legiÅnÄ“s scrÄ«beret, the consul was permitted to enroll two legions.

3. With verbs of hindering, preventing,[53] etc. (conjunctions nÄ“, quÅminus, quÄ«n); as,--

nÄ“ lÅ«strum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from finishing the lustrum (dependent form after past tense of nÄ“ lÅ«strum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.);

prohibuit quÅminus in Å«num coÄ«rent, _he prevented them from coming together_;

nec quÄ«n Ä“rumperet, prohibÄ“rÄ« poterat, nor could he be prevented from rushing forth.

a. QuÄ«n is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a negative, or stands in a question implying a negative; it is not necessarily used even then.

4. With verbs of deciding, resolving,[54] etc. (conjunctions ut, nÄ“, or ut nÄ“); as,--

cÅnstitueram ut prÄ«diÄ“ ÄªdÅ«s AquÄ«nÄ« manÄ“rem, _I had decided to remain at Aquinum on the 12th_;

dÄ“crÄ“vit senÄtus ut OpÄ«mius vidÄ“ret, _the Senate decreed that Opimius should see to it_;

convÄ“nit ut Å«nÄ«s castrÄ«s miscÄ“rentur, it was agreed that they should be united in one camp.

5. With verbs of striving,[55] etc. (conjunctions ut, nÄ“, or ut nÄ“); as,--

fac ut eum exÅrÄ“s, _see to it that you prevail upon him!_

cÅ«rÄ ut vir sÄ«s, _see to it that you are a man!_

labÅrÄbat ut reliquÄs cÄ«vitÄtÄ“s adjungeret, he was striving to join the remaining states to him.

a. CÅnor, try, always takes the Infinitive.

NOTE.--Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in poetry.

6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquus est, sequitur, licet, oportet; as,--

sequitur ut doceam, _it remains for me to show_;

licet redeÄs, _you may return_;

oportet loquÄmur, we must speak.

On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.

7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nÅ«lla causa est cÅ«r, quÄ«n; nÅn est cÅ«r, etc.; nihil est cÅ«r, etc.; as,--

nÅ«lla causa est cÅ«r timeam, there is no reason why I should fear (originally Deliberative: _why should I fear? There's no reason_);

nihil est quÄ«n dÄ«cam, there is no reason why I should not say.

8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times take the simple Subjunctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omission of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed before the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse est, licet, and oportet; see 6. Other examples are:--

eÅs moneÅ dÄ“sinant, _I warn them to stop_;

huic imperat adeat cÄ«vitÄtÄ“s, he orders him to visit the states.

B. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.

296. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative occur:--

1. With verbs of wishing, desiring, especially cupiÅ, optÅ, volÅ, mÄlÅ (conjunctions ut, nÄ“, ut nÄ“); as,--

optÅ ut in hÅc jÅ«diciÅ nÄ“mÅ improbus reperiÄtur, I hope that in this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiÄtur represents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiÄtur, may no bad man be found!);

cupiÅ nÄ“ veniat, I desire that he may not come.

a. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs of this class. (See Â§ 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scrÄ«bÄs, _I wish you would write_; vellem scrÄ«psisset, I wish he had written.

2. With expressions of fearing (timeÅ, metuÅ, vereor, etc.). Here nÄ“ means that, lest, and ut means _that not_; as,--

timeÅ nÄ“ veniat, I fear that he will come (originally: _may he not come! I'm afraid_ [_he will_]);

timeÅ ut veniat, I fear that he will not come (originally: _may he come! I'm afraid_ [_he won't_]).

a. NÄ“ nÅn sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of fearing has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some particular word in the dependent clause; as,--

nÅn vereor ne hÅc nÅn fÄ«at, _I am not afraid that this will not happen;_

vereor nÄ“ exercitum fÄ«rmum habÄ“re nÅn possit, I fear that he is unable (nÅn possit) _to have a strong army._

C. Substantive Clauses of Result.

297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut nÅn) are a development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of words:--

1. As object clauses after verbs of doing, accomplishing (especially faciÅ, efficiÅ, cÅnficiÅ). Thus:--

gravitÄs morbÄ« facit ut medicÄ«nÄ egeÄmus, _the severity of disease makes us need medicine._

2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, efficitur, accidit, Ä“venit, contingit, accÄ“dit, fierÄ« potest, fore, sequitur, relinquitur. Thus:--

ex quÅ efficitur, ut voluptÄs nÅn sit summum bonum, _from which it follows that pleasure is not the greatest good_;

ita fit, ut nÄ“mÅ esse possit beÄtus, _thus it happens that no one can be happy_;

accÄ“dÄ“bat ut nÄvÄ“s deessent, another thing was the lack of ships (lit. _it was added that ships were lacking_).

3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jÅ«s est, mÅs est, cÅnsuÄ“tÅ«dÅ est; also after neuter pronouns, hÅc, illud, etc. Thus:--

est mÅs hominum ut nÅlint eundem plÅ«ribus rÄ“bus excellere, _it is the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in many things._

D. Substantive Clauses introduced by _QuÄ«n_.

298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quÄ«n (used sometimes as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of doubt, _omission,_ and the like, particularly after nÅn dubitÅ, _I do not doubt_; quis dubitat, _who doubts?_; nÅn (haud) dubium est, there is no doubt. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples:--

quis dubitat quÄ«n in virtÅ«te dÄ«vitiae sint, _who doubts that in virtue there are riches?_

nÅn dubium erat quÄ«n ventÅ«rus esset, _there was no doubt that he was about to come._

a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes takes the place of the quÄ«n-clause after nÅn dubitÅ; as,--

nÅn dubitÄmus inventÅs esse, we do not doubt that men were found b. NÅn dubitÅ, I do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the Infinitive, though sometimes by a quÄ«n-clause.

E. Substantive Clauses Introduced by Quod.

299. 1. Quod, the fact that, that, introduces Substantive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs especially--

a) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hÅc, id, illud, illa, ex eÅ, inde, etc. Thus:--

illud est admÄ«rÄtiÅne dignum, quod captÄ«vÅs retinendÅs cÄ“nsuit, _this is especially worthy of admiration, that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept_;

hÅc Å«nÅ praestÄmus vel maximÄ“ ferÄ«s, quod colloquimur inter nÅs, _in this one respect we are especially superior to the beasts, that we talk with each other_.

b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, mÄ«ror, etc.; as,--

bene mihi Ä“venit, quod mittor ad mortem, _it is well for me that I am sent to death_;

bene fÄ“cistÄ« quod mÄnsistÄ«, _you did well in remaining._

2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as regards the fact that. Thus:--

quod multitÅ«dinem GermÄnÅrum in Galliam trÄdÅ«cÅ, id meÄ« mÅ«niendÄ« causÄ faciÅ, _as regards the fact that I am transporting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengthening myself;_

quod mÄ“ Agamemnona aemulÄrÄ« putÄs, falleris, _as regards your thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken_.

F. Indirect Questions.

300. 1. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of asking, inquiring, telling, and the like. They take their verb in the Subjunctive[56]. Like Direct Questions (see Â§ 162) they may be introduced--

a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs; as,--

dÄ«c mihi ubi fuerÄ«s, quid fÄ“cerÄ«s, _tell me where you were, what you did_;

oculÄ«s jÅ«dicÄrÄ« nÅn potest in utram partem fluat Arar, _it cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the Arar flows_;

bis bÄ«na quot essent, nesciÄ“bat, he did not know how many two times two were.

NOTE.--Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following:--

effugere nÄ“mÅ id potest quod futÅ«rum est, _no one can escape what is destined to come to pass;_ but saepe autem ne Å«tile quidem est scÄ«re quid futÅ«rum sit, _but often it is not even useful to know what is coming to pass._

b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning; as,--

EpamÄ«nÅndÄs quaesÄ«vit num salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset clipeus, _Epaminondas asked whether his shield was safe_;

disputÄtur num interÄ«re virtÅ«s in homine possit, _the question is raised whether virtue can die in a man_;

ex SÅcrate quaesÄ«tum est nÅnne ArchelÄum beÄtum putÄret, the question was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy.

NOTE.--NÅnne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaerÅ, as in the last example above.

2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the direct discourse; as,--

nesciÅ quid faciam, _I do not know what to do._ (Direct: quid faciam, _what shall I do!_)

3. After verbs of expectation and endeavor (exspectÅ, cÅnor, experior, temptÅ) we sometimes find an Indirect Question introduced by sÄ«; as,--

cÅnantur sÄ« perrumpere possint, _they try whether they can break through._

a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted; as,--

pergit ad proximam spÄ“luncam sÄ« forte eÅ vÄ“stÄ«gia ferrent, _he proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks led thither._

4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same particles as direct double questions (Â§ 162, 4); viz.;--

utrum ... an; -ne ... an; ---- ... an; ---- ... ne.

Examples:--

quaerÅ utrum vÄ“rum an falsum sit, } quaerÅ vÄ“rumne an falsum sit, } I ask whether it quaerÅ vÄ“rum an falsum sit, } _is true or false?_ quaerÅ vÄ“rum falsumne sit, }

a. _'Or not'_ in the second member of the double question is ordinarily expressed by necne, less frequently by an nÅn; as,--

dÄ« utrum sint necne, quaeritur, _it is asked whether there are gods or not._

5. Haud sciÅ an, nesciÅ an, by omission of the first member of the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense: _I am inclined to think, probably, perhaps;_ as,--

haud sciÅ an ita sit, _I am inclined to think this is so._

6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in indirect Questions.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (Â§ 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or _condition_), usually introduced by sÄ«, nisi, or sÄ«n, and the Apodosis (or _conclusion_). There are the following types of Conditional Sentences:--

First Type.--Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Supposed Case.

302. 1. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis. Any tense may be used; as,--

sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dis, errÄs, _if you believe this, you are mistaken_;

nÄtÅ«ram sÄ« sequÄ“mur, numquam aberrÄbimus, _if we follow Nature, we shall never go astray_;

sÄ« hÅc dÄ«xistÄ«, errÄstÄ«, _if you said this, you were in error_.

2. Sometimes the Protasis takes the Indefinite Second Person Singular (Â§ 356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the Indicative; as,--

memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceÄs, memory is impaired unless you exercise it.

3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Protasis denotes a repeated action (compare Â§Â§ 287, 2; 288, 3); as,--

sÄ« quis equitum dÄ“ciderat, peditÄ“s circumsistÄ“bant, _if any one of the horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him_.

a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated action; as,--

sÄ« dÄ«cendÅ quis diem eximeret, _if (ever) anybody consumed a day in pleading_; sÄ« quandÅ adsidÄ“ret, if ever he sat by.

4. Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sentences of the First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Independent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as,--

sÄ« hÅc crÄ“ditis, tacÄ“te, _if you believe this, be silent_;

sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dimus, taceÄmus, _if we believe this, let us keep silent_.

Second Type.--'Should'-'Would' Conditions.

303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Present or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; as,--

sÄ« hÅc dÄ«cÄs, errÄ“s, or sÄ« hÅc dÄ«xerÄ«s, errÄverÄ«s, _if you should say this, you would be mistaken_;

sÄ« velim Hannibalis proelia omnia dÄ“scrÄ«bere, diÄ“s mÄ“ dÄ“ficiat, _if I should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time would fail me_;

mentiar, sÄ« negem, _I should lie, if I should deny it_;

haec sÄ« tÄ“cum patria loquÄtur, nÅnne impetrÄre dÄ“beat, _if your country should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to obtain her request?_

a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type is of the Potential variety.

b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a result more positively; as,--

aliter sÄ« faciat, nÅ«llam habet auctÅritÄtem, _if he should do otherwise, he has no authority_.

Third Type.--Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to Fact.

304. 1. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to present time, and the Pluperfect referring _to past_; as,--

sÄ« amÄ«cÄ« meÄ« adessent, opis nÅn indigÄ“rem, _if my friends were here, I should not lack assistance_;

sÄ« hÅc dÄ«xissÄ“s, errÄssÄ“s, _if you had said this, you would have erred_;

sapientia nÅn expeterÄ“tur, sÄ« nihil efficeret, _philosophy would not be desired, if it accomplished nothing_;

cÅnsilium, ratiÅ, sententia nisi essent in senibus, nÅn summum cÅnsilium majÅrÄ“s nostrÄ« appellÄssent senÄtum, _unless deliberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ancestors would not have called their highest deliberative body a senate_.

2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past, especially to denote _a continued act, or a state of things still existing_; as,--

Laelius, FÅ«rius, CatÅ sÄ« nihil litterÄ«s adjuvÄrentur, numquam sÄ“ ad eÄrum studium contulissent, _Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been (constantly) helped by them_;

num igitur sÄ« ad centÄ“simum annum vÄ«xisset, senectÅ«tis eum suae paenitÄ“ret, _if he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have regretted (and now be regretting) his old age?_

3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz.--

a) Frequently in expressions of ability, obligation, or _necessity_; as,--

nisi fÄ“lÄ«citÄs in sÅcordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuÄ“runt, _unless their prosperity had turned to folly, they could have thrown off the yoke_;

NOTE.--In sentences of this type, however, it is not the possibility that is represented as-contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent understood (_and they would have shaken it off_). When the possibility itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used.

eum patris locÅ colere dÄ“bÄ“bÄs, sÄ« Å«lla in tÄ“ pietÄs esset, _you ought to revere him as a father, if you had any sense of devotion_.

b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations; as,--

sÄ« SÄ“stius occÄ«sus esset, fuistisne ad arma itÅ«rÄ«, _if Sestius had been slain, would you have proceeded to arms?_

sÄ« Å«num diem morÄtÄ« essÄ“tis, moriendum omnibus fuit, _if you had delayed one day, you would all have had to die_.

Protasis expressed without _SÄ«_.

305. 1. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with sÄ«, but may be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context; as,--

aliÅquÄ« haec nÅn scrÄ«berentur, otherwise (i.e. if matters were otherwise) _these things would not be written_;

nÅn potestis, voluptÄte omnia dÄ«rigentÄ“s, retinÄ“re virtÅ«tem, _you cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to pleasure_.

2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as Protasis. Thus:--

crÄs petitÅ, dabitur, _if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you_ (lit. _ask to-morrow_, etc.);

haec reputent, vidÄ“bunt, _if they consider this, they will see_ (lit. let them consider, etc.);

rogÄ“s ZÄ“nÅnem, respondeat, _if you should ask Zeno, he would answer_.

Use of Nisi, _SÄ« NÅn_, _SÄ«n_.

306. 1. Nisi, unless, negatives the entire protasis; sÄ« nÅn negatives a single word; as,--

ferreus essem, nisi tÄ“ amÄrem, _I should be hard-hearted unless I loved you_; but--

ferreus essem, sÄ« tÄ“ nÅn amÄrem, _I should be hard-hearted if I did NOT love you_.

In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived, in the second, the notion of loving.

2. SÄ« nÅn (sÄ« minus) is regularly employed:--

a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certÄ“ follows; as,--

dolÅrem sÄ« nÅn potuerÅ frangere, tamen occultÄbÅ, _if I cannot crush my sorrow, yet I will hide it._

b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form; as,--

sÄ« fÄ“ceris, magnam habÄ“bÅ grÄtiam; sÄ« nÅn fÄ“ceris, ignÅscam, _if you do it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you do not do it, I shall pardon you_.

a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin minus is admissible; as,--

hÅc sÄ« assecÅ«tus sum, gaudeÅ; sÄ« minus, mÄ“ cÅnsÅlor, _if I have attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself_.

3. SÄ«n. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sÄ«n; as,--

hunc mihi timÅrem Ä“ripe; sÄ« vÄ“rus est, nÄ“ opprimar, sÄ«n falsus, ut timÄ“re dÄ“sinam, _relieve me of this fear; if it is well founded, that I may not be destroyed; but if it is groundless, that I may cease to fear_.

4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (nÅn, nÄ“mÅ, nihil); as,--

nihil cÅgitÄvit nisi caedem, he had no thought but murder.

a. NÅn and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.

5. Nisi forte, nisi vÄ“rÅ, nisi sÄ«, _unless perchance, unless indeed_ (often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as,--

nisi vÄ“rÅ, quia perfecta rÄ“s nÅn est, nÅn vidÄ“tur pÅ«nienda, _unless indeed, because an act is not consummated, it does not seem to merit punishment_.

Conditional Clauses of Comparison.

307. 1. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are introduced by the particles, ac sÄ«, ut sÄ«, quasi, quam sÄ«, tamquam sÄ«, velut sÄ«, or simply by velut or tamquam. They stand in the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis (see Â§ 374, 1), as indicated in the following examples:--

tantus patrÄ“s metus cÄ“pit, velat sÄ« jam ad portÄs hostis esset, _as great fear seized the senators as (would have seized them) if the enemy were already at the gates_;

sed quid ego hÄ«s testibus Å«tor quasi rÄ“s dubia aut obscÅ«ra sit, _but why do I use these witnesses, as (I should do) if the matter were doubtful or obscure_;

serviam tibi tam quasi Ä“merÄ«s mÄ“ argentÅ, I will serve you as though you had bought me for money.

2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regular principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third examples), where the English uses the Past and Past Perfect.

Concessive Clauses.

308. The term 'Concessive' is best restricted to those clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force of granted that, etc.; (see Â§ 278) as,--

sit fÅ«r, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperÄtor, _granted that he is a thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander_;

haec sint falsa, _granted that this is false_;

nÄ“ sit summum malum dolor, malum certÄ“ est, _granted that pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil_.

Adversative Clauses with _QuamvÄ«s_, Quamquam, etc.

309. Clauses introduced by quamvÄ«s, quamquam, etsÄ«, tametsÄ«, cum, although, while often classed as 'Concessive,' are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive clauses. As a rule, they do not grant or concede anything, but rather state that something is true in spite of something else. They accordingly emphasize the adversative idea, and are properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses. The different particles used to introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different constructions, as follows:--

1. QuamvÄ«s, however much, although, does not introduce a statement of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense; as,--

hominÄ“s quamvÄ«s in turbidÄ«s rÄ“bus sint, tamen interdum animÄ«s relaxantur, _in however stirring events men may engage, yet at times they relax their energies;_

nÅn est potestÄs opitulandÄ« reÄ« pÅ«blicae quamvÄ«s ea premÄtur perÄ«culÄ«s, _there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it be beset by dangers._

2. Quamquam, etsÄ«, tametsÄ«, although, introduce a statement of fact, and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense); as,--

quamquam omnis virtÅ«s nÅs allicit, tamen jÅ«stitia id maximÄ“ efficit, _although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so especially;_

Caesar, etsÄ« nÅndum cÅnsilium hostium cognÅverat, tamen id quod accidit suspicÄbÄtur, _Caesar, though he did not yet know the plans of the enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred_.

a. EtsÄ«, although, must be distinguished from etsÄ«, even if. The latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions admissible for sÄ«. (See Â§Â§ 302-304.)

3. Cum, although, is followed by the Subjunctive; as,--

Atticus honÅrÄ“s nÅn petiit, cum eÄ« patÄ“rent, _Atticus did not seek honors, though they were open to him_.

4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see Â§ 295, 6) and sinks to the level of a conjunction with the force of although. It takes the Subjunctive, Present or Perfect; as,--

licet omnÄ“s terrÅrÄ“s impendeant, succurram, _though all terrors hang over me, (yet) I will lend aid_.

5. Quamquam, with the force and yet, is often used to introduce principal clauses; as,--

quamquam quid loquor, _and yet why do I speak?_

6. In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the Subjunctive, while quamvÄ«s is often used to introduce statements of fact, and takes either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus:--

quamquam movÄ“rÄ“tur hÄ«s vÅcibus, _although he was moved by these words_;

quamvÄ«s multÄ« opÄ«nÄrentur, _though many thought_;

quamvÄ«s Ä«nfÄ“stÅ animÅ pervÄ“nerÄs, though you had come with hostile intent.

Clauses with Dum, Modo, Dummodo, denoting a Wish or a Proviso.

310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative nÄ“) and have two distinct uses:--

I. They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish entertained by the subject of the leading verb; as,--

multÄ« honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam cÅnsequantur, many neglect honor in their desire to obtain power (_if only they may attain_);

omnia postposuÄ«, dum praeceptÄ«s patris pÄrÄ“rem, _I made everything else secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father_;

nÄ«l obstat tibi, dum nÄ“ sit dÄ«tior alter, nothing hinders you in your desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you.

II. They are used to express a proviso ('_provided that_'); as,--

Åderint, dum metuant, _let them hate, provided they fear_;

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, _old men retain their faculties, provided only they retain their interest and vigor_;

nÅ«bant, dum nÄ“ dÅs fiat comes, _let them marry, provided no dowry goes with it_.

Relative Clauses.

311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pronouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs.

312. 1. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially clauses introduced by those General Relatives which are doubled or have the suffix -oumque; as,--

quidquid id est, timeÅ DanaÅs et dÅna ferentÄ“s, _whatever it is, I fear the Greeks even when they offer gifts;_

quidquid oritur, quÄlecumque est, causam Ä nÄtÅ«rÄ habet, _whatever comes into being, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause in Nature._

2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the three types mentioned in Â§Â§ 302-304; as,--

quÄ« hÅc dÄ«cit, errat, he who says this is mistaken (First Type);

quÄ« hÅc dÄ«cat, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this (Second Type);

quÄ« hÅc dÄ«xisset, errÄsset, _the man who had said this would have been mistaken._

INDIRECT DISCOURSE (_ÅŒRÄ€TIÅŒ OBLÄªQUA_).

313. When the language or thought of any person is reproduced without change, that is called Direct Discourse (_ÅŒrÄtiÅ Recta_); as, _Caesar said, 'The die is cast.'_ When, on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of saying, thinking, etc., that is called Indirect Discourse (_ÅŒrÄtiÅ OblÄ«qua_); as, _Caesar said that the die was cast; Caesar thought that his troops were victorious._

a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect Discourse, see Â§ 331.

MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Declarative Sentences.

314. 1. Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive; as,--

RÄ“gulus dÄ«xit quam diÅ« jÅ«re jÅ«randÅ hostium tenÄ“rÄ“tur nÅn esse sÄ“ senÄtÅrem, _Regulus said that as long as he was held by his pledge to the enemy he was not a senator._ (Direct: quam diÅ« teneor nÅn sum senÄtor.)

2. The verb of saying, thinking, etc., is sometimes to be inferred from the context; as,--

tum RÅmulus lÄ“gÄtÅs circÄ vÄ«cÄ«nÄs gentÄ“s mÄ«sit quÄ« societÄtem cÅnÅ«biumque peterent: urbÄ“s quoque, ut cÄ“tera, ex Ä«nfimÅ nÄscÄ«, _then Romulus sent envoys around among the neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of intermarriage, (saying that) cities, like everything else, start from a modest beginning_.

3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or which emphasize the fact stated, take the Indicative; as,--

nÅ«ntiÄtum est Ariovistum ad occupandum VesontiÅnem, quod est oppidum maximum SÄ“quanÅrum contendere, _it was reported that Ariovistus was hastening to seize Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani_.

4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where quÄ« is equivalent to et hÄ«c, nam hÄ«c, etc.; as,--

dÄ«xit urbem AthÄ“niÄ“nsium prÅpugnÄculum oppositum esse barbarÄ«s, apud quam jam bis classÄ“s rÄ“giÄs fÄ“cisse naufragium, _he said the city of the Athenians had been set against the barbarians like a bulwark, near which (= and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met disaster_.

5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily be supplied from the context; as,--

cum id nescÄ«re MÄgÅ dÄ«ceret, when Mago said he did not know this (for sÄ“ nescÄ«re).

Interrogative Sentences.

315. 1. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunctive; as,--

Ariovistus CaesarÄ« respondit: sÄ“ prius in Galliam vÄ“nisse quam populum RÅmÄnum. Quid sibi vellet? CÅ«r in suÄs possessiÅnÄ“s venÄ«ret, _Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he had come into Gaul before the Roman people. What did he (Caesar) mean? Why did he come into his domain?_ (Direct: quid tibi vÄ«s? cÅ«r in meÄs possessiÅnÄ“s venÄ«s?)

2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse. Thus :--

quid est levius (lit. what is more trivial, = nothing is more trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the Indirect.

3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain unchanged in mood in the Indirect: as,--

quid faceret, _what was he to do?_ (Direct: quid faciat?)

Imperative Sentences.

316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the Indirect; as,--

mÄ«litÄ“s certiÅrÄ“s fÄ“cit paulisper intermitterent proelium, he told the soldiers to stop the battle for a little. (Direct: intermittite.)

a. The negative in such sentences is nÄ“; as,--

nÄ“ suae virtÅ«tÄ« tribueret, _let him not attribute it to his own valor!_

TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

A. Tenses of the Infinitive.

317. These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in Â§ 270.

a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative of Direct Discourse. Thus:--

sciÅ tÄ“ haec Ä“gisse may mean--

I know you were doing this.(Direct: haec agÄ“bÄs.)

I know you did this. (Direct: haec Ä“gistÄ«.)

I know you had done this. (Direct: haec Ä“gerÄs.)

B. Tenses of the Subjunctive.

318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being Principal if the verb of saying is Principal; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used after an historical tense (_RepraesentÄtiÅ_); as,--

Caesar respondit, sÄ« obsidÄ“s dentur, sÄ“sÄ“ pÄcem esse factÅ«rum, _Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace_.

a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see Â§ 268, 2.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

Conditional Sentences of the First Type.

319. A. THE APODOSIS. Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive (Â§Â§ 270; 317, a).

B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence of Tenses.

Examples:--

DIRECT. INDIRECT. sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dis, errÄs, dÄ«cÅ, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dÄs, tÄ“ errÄre; dÄ«xÄ«, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“derÄ“s, tÄ“ errÄre. sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dÄ“s, errÄbis, dÄ«cÅ, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dÄs, tÄ“ errÄtÅ«rum esse; dÄ«xÄ«, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“derÄ“s, tÄ“ errÄtÅ«rum esse. sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dideris, errÄbis, dÄ«cÅ, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“derÄ«s, tÄ“ errÄtÅ«rum esse; dÄ«xÄ«, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“didissÄ“s, tÄ“ errÄtÅ«rum esse. sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dÄ“bÄs, errÄvistÄ«, dÄ«cÅ, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“derÄ“s, tÄ“ errÄvisse; dÄ«xÄ«, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“derÄ“s, tÄ“ errÄvisse.

a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an historical tense.

Conditional Sentences of the Second Type.

320. A. THE APODOSIS. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infinitive of the Indirect.

B. THE PROTASIS. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses.

Examples:--

sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dÄs, errÄ“s, dÄ«cÅ, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“dÄs, tÄ“ errÄtÅ«rum esse; dÄ«xÄ«, sÄ« hÅc crÄ“derÄ“s, tÄ“ errÄtÅ«rum esse;

Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.

321. A. THE APODOSIS.

1. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes the Future Infinitive.

a. But this construction is rare, being represented in the classical Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2). Some scholars question the correctness of this passage.

2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes:--

a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -Å«rus fuisse.

b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futÅ«rum fuisse ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive.

B. THE PROTASIS. The protasis in Conditional Sentences of this type always remains unchanged.

Examples:--

sÄ« hÅc crÄ“derÄ“s, errÄrÄ“s, dÄ«cÅ (dÄ«xÄ«), sÄ« hÅc crÄ“derÄ“s, tÄ“ errÄtÅ«rum esse; sÄ« hÅc crÄ“didissÄ“s, dÄ«cÅ (dÄ«xÄ«), sÄ« hÅc crÄ“didissÄ“s, tÄ“ errÄvissÄ“s, errÄtÅ«rum fuisse; sÄ« hÅc dÄ«xissÄ“s, pÅ«nÄ«tus dÄ«cÅ (dÄ«xÄ«), sÄ« hÅc dÄ«xissÄ“s, futÅ«rum essÄ“s. fuisse ut pÅ«nÄ«rÄ“ris.

322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause or a quÄ«n-clause (after nÅn dubitÅ, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Subjunctive in the form -Å«rus fuerim; as,--

ita territÄ« sunt, ut arma trÄditÅ«rÄ« fuerint,[57] nisi Caesar subitÅ advÄ“nisset, _they were so frightened that they would have given up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived_;

nÅn dubitÅ quÄ«n, sÄ« hÅc dÄ«xissÄ“s, errÄtÅ«rus fuerÄ«s,[57] _I do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake_.

a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged; as,--

nÅn dubitÅ quÄ«n, sÄ« hÅc dÄ«xissÄ“s, vituperÄtus essÄ“s, _I do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed_.

b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a conditional sentence of the Third Type, -Å«rus fuerim (rarely -Å«rus fuissem) is used; as,--

quaerÅ, num, sÄ« hÅc dÄ«xissÄ“s, errÄtÅ«rus fuerÄ«s (or fuissÄ“s).

c. PotuÄ«, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as,--

concursÅ« tÅtÄ«us civitÄtis dÄ“fÄ“nsÄ« sunt, ut frÄ«gidissimÅs quoque ÅrÄtÅrÄ“s populÄ« studia excitÄre potuerint, _they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators_.

IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose indirect character is _merely implied by the context_; as,--

dÄ“mÅnstrÄbantur mihi praetereÄ, quae SÅcratÄ“s dÄ“ immortÄlitÄte animÅrum disseruisset, _there were explained to me besides, the arguments which Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul_ (i.e. the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth);

Paetus omnÄ“s librÅs quÅs pater suus relÄ«quisset mihi dÅnÄvit, _Paetus gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left_.

SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.

324. 1. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive are frequently attracted into the same mood especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute _an essential part of one complex idea_; as,--

nÄ“mÅ avÄrus adhÅ«c inventus est, cui, quod habÄ“ret, esset satis, _no miser has yet been found who was satisfed with what he had_;

cum dÄ«versÄs causÄs afferrent, dum fÅrmam suÄ« quisque et animÄ« et ingeniÄ« redderent, _as they brought forward different arguments, while each mirrored his own individual type of mind and natural bent_;

quod ego fatear, pudeat? _should I be ashamed of a thing which I admit?_

2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united whole; as,--

mÅs est AthÄ“nÄ«s quotannÄ«s in cÅntiÅne laudÄrÄ« eÅs quÄ« sint in proeliÄ«s interfectÄ«, it is the custom at Athens every year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle. (Here the notion of 'praising those who fell in battle' forms an inseparable whole.)

NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.

325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. All of these partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the other. Thus:--

As Verbs,--

a) They may be limited by adverbs; b) They admit an object; c) They have the properties of voice and tense.

As Nouns or Adjectives,--

a) They are declined; b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.

THE INFINITIVE.

Infinitive without Subject Accusative.

326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.

NOTE.--The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express _purpose_; as, nec dulcÄ“s occurrent Åscula nÄtÄ« praeripere, and no sweet children will run to snatch kisses.

_A. As Subject._

327. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, dÄ“lectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet, interest, etc.; as,--

dulce et decÅrum est prÅ patriÄ morÄ«, _it is sweet and noble to die for one's country_;

virÅrum est fortium toleranter dolÅrem patÄ«, _it is the part of brave men to endure pain with patience_;

senÄtuÄ« placuit lÄ“gÄtÅs mittere, the Senate decided (lit. _it pleased the Senate_) to send envoys.

2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative; as,--

aliud est Ä«rÄcundum esse, aliud Ä«rÄtum, _it is one thing to be irascible, another to be angry_;

impÅ«ne quaelibet facere, id est rÄ“gem esse, _to do whatever you please with impunity, that is to be a king_.

a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licuit esse ÅtiÅsÅ ThemistoclÄ«, lit. it was permitted to Themistocles to be at leisure. So sometimes with other Impersonals.

_B. As Object._

328. 1. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after--

volÅ, cupiÅ, mÄlÅ, nÅlÅ, dÄ“beo, cÅgitÅ, meditor, purpose, _ought_; _intend_; statuÅ, cÅnstituÅ, _decide_; neglegÅ, _neglect_; audeÅ, _dare_; vereor, timeÅ, _fear_; studeÅ, contendÅ, _strive_; mÄtÅ«rÅ, festÄ«nÅ, properÅ, contendÅ, parÅ, prepare (so parÄtus); _hasten_; incipiÅ, coepÄ«, Ä«nstituÅ, assuÄ“scÅ, cÅnsuÄ“scÅ, _accustom _begin_; myself_ (so assuÄ“tus, Ä«nsuÄ“tus, pergÅ, _continue_; assuÄ“factus); dÄ“sinÅ, dÄ“sistÅ, _cease_; discÅ, _learn_; possum, _can_; sciÅ, _know how_; cÅnor, _try_; soleÅ, _am wont_;

as,--

tÅ« hÅs intuÄ“rÄ« audÄ“s, _do you dare to look on these men_?

DÄ“mosthenÄ“s ad flÅ«ctÅ«s maris dÄ“clÄmÄre solÄ“bat, Demosthenes used to declaim by the waves of the sea.

2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted into the Nominative; as,--

beÄtus esse sine virtÅ«te nÄ“mÅ potest, _no one can be happy without virtue_;

CatÅ esse quam vidÄ“rÄ« bonus mÄlÄ“bat, Cato preferred to be good rather than to seem so.

Infinitive with Subject Accusative.

329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as Predicate or Appositive.

_A. As Subject._

330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the simple Infinitive) is used as Subject with esse and Impersonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, Å«tile est, turpe est, fÄma est, spÄ“s est, fÄs est, nefÄs est, opus est, necesse est, oportet, cÅnstat, praestat, licet, etc.; as,--

nihil in bellÅ oportet contemnÄ«, _nothing ought to be despised in war_;

apertum est sibi quemque nÄtÅ«rÄ esse cÄrum, it is manifest that by nature everybody is dear to himself.

_B. As Object._

331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as Object after the following classes of verbs:

1. Most frequently after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, perceiving, and the like (_Verba Sentiendi et DÄ“clÄrandÄ«_). This is the regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs that take this construction are, among others, the following: sentiÅ, audiÅ, videÅ, cognÅscÅ; putÅ, jÅ«dicÅ, spÄ“rÅ, cÅnfÄ«dÅ; sciÅ, meminÄ«; dicÅ, affÄ«rmÅ, negÅ (_say that ... not_), trÄdÅ, nÄrrÅ, fateor, respondeÅ, scrÄ«bÅ, prÅmittÅ, glÅrior. Also the phrases: certiÅrem faciÅ (_inform_), memoriÄ teneÅ (_remember_), etc.

Examples:--

EpicÅ«rÄ“Ä« putant cum corporibus simul animÅs interÄ«re, _the Epicureans think that the soul perishes with the body_;

ThalÄ“s dÄ«xit aquam esse initium rÄ“rum, _Thales said that water was the first principle of the universe_;

DÄ“mocritus negat quicquid esse sempiternum, _Democritus says nothing is everlasting;_

spÄ“rÅ eum ventÅ«rum esse, I hope that he will come.

II. With jubeÅ, order, and vetÅ, _forbid_; as,--

Caesar mÄ«litÄ“s pontem facere jussit, Caesar ordered the soldiers to make a bridge.

a. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do something is omitted, the Infinitive with jubeÅ and vetÅ is put in the Passive; as, Caesar pontem fierÄ« jussit.

III. With patior and sinÅ, permit, _allow_; as,--

nÅ«llÅ sÄ“ implicÄrÄ« negÅtiÅ passus est, he did not permit himself to be involved in any difficulty.

IV. With volÅ, nÅlÅ, mÄlÅ, cupiÅ, when the Subject of the Infinitive is different from that of the governing verb; as,--

nec mihi hunc errÅrem extorquÄ“rÄ« volÅ, _nor do I wish this error to be wrested from me_;

eÄs rÄ“s jactÄrÄ« nÅlÄ“bat, _he was unwilling that these matters should be discussed_;

tÄ“ tuÄ fruÄ« virtÅ«te cupimus, we desire that you enjoy your worth.

a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is regularly used in accordance with Â§ 328, 1. But exceptions occur, especially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives as,--

cupiÅ mÄ“ esse clÄ“mentem, _I desire to be lenient_;

TÄ«moleÅn mÄluit sÄ“ diligÄ« quam metuÄ«, Timoleon preferred to be loved rather than feared.

b. VolÅ also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut; nÅlÅ the Subjunctive alone. (See Â§ 296, 1, a.)

V. With Verbs of emotion (joy, sorrow, regret, etc.), especially gaudeÅ, laetor, doleÅ; aegrÄ“ ferÅ, molestÄ“ ferÅ, graviter ferÅ, am annoyed, _distressed_; mÄ«ror, queror, indignor; as,--

gaudeÅ tÄ“ salvum advenÄ«re, _I rejoice that you arrive safely_;

nÅn molestÄ“ ferunt sÄ“ libÄ«dinum vinculÄ«s laxÄtÅs Ä“sse, _they are not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion_;

mÄ«ror tÄ“ ad mÄ“ nihil scrÄ«bere, I wonder that you write me nothing.

a. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a quod- clause as Object. (See Â§ 299.) Thus:--

mÄ«ror quod nÅn loqueris, I wonder that you do not speak.

VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and the other of the Thing (Â§ 178, 1), may substitute an Infinitive for the second Accusative; as,--

cÅgÅ tÄ“ hÅc facere, I compel you to do this (_cf._ tÄ“ hÅc cÅgÅ);

docuÄ« tÄ“ contentum esse, I taught you to be content (_cf._ tÄ“ modestiam docuÄ«, _I taught you temperance_).

Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.

332. Those verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the personal construction of the Passive. This is true of the following and of some others:--

a) jubeor, vetor, sinor; as,--

mÄ«litÄ“s pontem facere jussÄ« sunt, _the soldiers were ordered to build a bridge_;

pÅns fierÄ« jussus est, _a bridge was ordered built_;

mÄ«litÄ“s castrÄ«s exÄ«re vetitÄ« sunt, _the troops were forbidden to go out of the camp_;

SÄ“stius ClÅdium accÅ«sÄre nÅn est situs, Sestius was not allowed to accuse Clodius.

b) videor, I am seen, _I seem_; as,--

vidÄ“tur comperisse, he seems to have discovered.

c) dÄ«cor, putor, exÄ«stimor, jÅ«dicor (in all persons); as,--

dÄ«citur in Italiam vÄ“nisse, _he is said to have come into Italy_;

RÅmulus prÄ«mus rÄ“x RÅmÄnÅrum fuisse putÄtur, Romulus is thought to have been the first king of the Romans.

d) fertur, feruntur, trÄditur, trÄduntur (only in the third person); as,--

fertur HomÄ“rus caecus fuisse, _Homer is said to have been blind_;

carmina ArchilochÄ« contumÄ“liÄ«s referta esse trÄduntur, _Archilochus's poems are reported to have been full of abuse_.

NOTE.--In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of verbs, c), d), more commonly take the impersonal construction; as--

trÄditum est HomÄ“rum caecum fuisse, the story goes that Homer was blind.

Infinitive with Adjectives.

333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except parÄtus, assuÄ“tus, etc.; see Â§ 328, 1) occurs only in poetry and post-Augustan prose writers; as,--

contentus dÄ“mÅnstrÄsse, _contented to have proved_;

audÄx omnia perpetÄ«, bold for enduring everything.

Infinitive in Exclamations.

334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying scorn, indignation, or regret. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word in the clause. Examples:--

huncine sÅlem tam nigrum surrÄ“xe mihi, _to think that to-day's sun rose with such evil omen for me!_

sedÄ“re tÅtÅs diÄ“s in vÄ«llÄ, to stay whole days at the villa.

Historical Infinitive.

335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative; as,--

interim cottÄ«diÄ“ Caesar HaeduÅs frÅ«mentum flÄgitÄre, meanwhile Caesar was daily demanding grain of the Haedui.

PARTICIPLES.

Tenses of the Participle.

336. 1. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the infinitive (see Â§ 270), express time not absolutely, but with reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.

2. The Present Participle denotes action contemporary with that of the verb. Thus:--

audiÅ tÄ“ loquentem = you ARE _speaking and I hear you_;

audiÄ“bam tÄ“ loquentem = you WERE _speaking and I heard you_;

audiam tÄ“ loquentem = you WILL BE _speaking and I shall hear you._

a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative force; as,--

assurgentem rÄ“gem resupÄ«nat, _as the king was trying to rise, he threw him down._

3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of the verb. Thus:--

locÅ«tus taceÅ = I HAVE _spoken and am silent_;

locÅ«tus tacui = I HAD _spoken and then was silent_;

locÅ«tus tacÄ“bÅ = I SHALL _speak and then shall be silent._

4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is determined entirely by the finite verb with which it is connected.

5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs are used as Presents; viz. arbitrÄtus, ausus, ratus, gÄvÄ«sus, solitus, Å«sus, cÅnfÄ«sus, diffÄ«sus, secÅ«tus, veritus.

Use of Participles.

337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive.

1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Examples are:--

glÅria est cÅnsentiÄ“ns laus bonÅrum, _glory is the unanimous praise of the good_;

ConÅn mÅ«rÅs Ä LysandrÅ dÄ«rutÅs reficit, _Conon restored the walls destroyed by Lysander._

2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a subordinate clause. Thus the Participle may denote:--

a) Time; as,--

omne malum nÄscÄ“ns facile opprimitur, _every evil is easily crushed at birth._

b) A Condition; as,--

mente Å«tÄ« nÅn possumus cibÅ et pÅtiÅne complÄ“tÄ«, _if gorged with food and drink, we cannot use our intellects_.

c) Manner; as,--

SolÅn senÄ“scere sÄ“ dÄ«cÄ“bat multa in diÄ“s addiscentem, _Solon said he grew old learning many new things daily._

d) Means; as,--

sÅl oriÄ“ns diem cÅnficit, _the sun, by its rising, makes the day._

e) Opposition ('_though_'); as,--

mendÄcÄ« hominÄ« nÄ“ vÄ“rum quidem dÄ«centÄ« crÄ“dimus, _we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth._

f) Cause; as,--

perfidiam veritus ad suÅs recessit, _since he feared treachery, he returned to his own troops._

3. VideÅ and audiÅ, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Participle in the Predicate use; as,--

videÅ tÄ“ fugientem, _I see you fleeing._

a. So frequently faciÅ, fingÅ, indÅ«cÅ, etc.; as,--

eÄ«s CatÅnem respondentem facimus, _we represent Cato replying to them_;

HomÄ“rus LaÃ«rtem colentem agrum facit, _Homer represents LaÃ«rtes tilling the field._

4. The Future Active Participle (except futÅ«rus) is regularly confined to its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later writers it is used independently, especially to denote _purpose_; as,--

vÄ“nÄ“runt castra oppugnÄtÅ«rÄ«, _they came to assault the camp._

5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a coÃ¶rdinate clause; as,--

urbem captam dÄ«ruit, he captured and destroyed the city (lit. _he destroyed the city captured_).

6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is sometimes equivalent to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive; as,--

post urbem conditam, _after the founding of the city_;

QuÄ«nctius dÄ“fÄ“nsus, _the defense of Quinctius_;

quibus animus occupÄtus, _the preoccupation of the mind with which._

7. HabeÅ sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predicate construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative; as,--

equitÄtus quem coÄctum habÄ“bat, _the cavalry which he had collected._

8. The Gerundive denotes obligation, necessity, etc. Like other Participles it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.

a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus:--

liber legendus, _a book worth reading_;

lÄ“gÄ“s observandae, laws deserving of observance.

b) More frequently as Predicate.

1) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus est, etc.). In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only impersonally, but admit their ordinary case-construction (Gen., Dat., Abl.); as,--

veniendum est, _it is necessary to come_;

oblÄ«vÄ«scendum est offÄ“nsÄrum, _one must forget injuries_;

numquam prÅditÅrÄ« crÄ“dendum est, _you must never trust a traitor_;

suÅ cuique Å«tendum est jÅ«diciÅ, every man must use his own judgment.

2) After cÅ«rÅ, _provide for_; dÅ, trÄdÅ, _give over_; relinquÅ, _leave_; concÄ“dÅ, hand over, and some other verbs, instead of an object clause, or to denote purpose; as,--

Caesar pontem in ArarÄ« faciendum cÅ«rÄvit, _Caesar provided for the construction of a bridge over the Arar_;

imperÄtor urbem mÄ«litibus dÄ«ripiendam concessit, the general handed over the city to the soldiers to plunder.

9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see Â§ 339, 1.

THE GERUND.

338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun constructions as follows:--

1. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used--

a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see Â§Â§ 200, 202); as,--

cupiditÄs dominandÄ«, _desire of ruling_;

ars scrÄ«bendÄ«, the art of writing.

b) With Adjectives; as,--

cupidus audiendÄ«, desirous of hearing.

c) With causÄ, grÄtiÄ; as,--

discendÄ« causÄ, for the sake of learning.

2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used--

a) With Adjectives; as,--

aqua Å«tilis est bibendÅ, water is useful for drinking.

b) With Verbs (rarely); as,--

adfuÄ« scrÄ«bendÅ, I was present at the writing.

3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose; as,--

homÅ ad agendum nÄtus est, man is born for action.

4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used--

a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc. (see Â§Â§ 218, 219); as,--

mÄ“ns discendÅ alitur et cÅgitandÅ, the mind is nourished by learning and reflection.

ThemistoclÄ“s maritimÅs praedÅnÄ“s cÅnsectandÅ mare tÅ«tum reddidit, Themistocles made the sea safe by following up the pirates.

b) After the prepositions Ä, dÄ“, ex, in; as,--

summa voluptÄs ex discendÅ capitur, _the keenest pleasure is derived from learning_;

multa dÄ“ bene beÄtÄ“que vÄ«vendÅ Ä PlatÅne disputÄta sunt, there was much discussion by Plato on the subject of living well and happily.

5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative (without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.

Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.

339. 1. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a Direct Object, another construction _may be, and very often is, used_. This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund (Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This is called the Gerundive Construction. Thus:--

GERUND CONSTRUCTION. GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION. cupidus urbem videndÄ«, _desirous of cupidus urbis videndae; seeing the city_. dÄ“lector ÅrÄtÅrÄ“s legendÅ, _I am dÄ“lector ÅrÄtÅribus legendÄ«s charmed with reading the orators_.

2. The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon a Preposition; as,--

locus castrÄ«s mÅ«niendÄ«s aptus, _a place adapted to fortifying a camp_;

ad pÄcem petendam vÄ“nÄ“runt, _they came to ask peace_;

multum temporis cÅnsÅ«mÅ in legendÄ«s poÄ“tÄ«s, I spend much time in reading the poets.

3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see Â§ 236, 2), the Gerundive Construction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives used substantively. Thus regularly--

philosophÄ« cupidÄ« sunt vÄ“rum invÄ“stÄ«gandÄ«, philosophers are eager for discovering truth (rarely vÄ“rÄ« invÄ“stÄ«gandÄ«);

studium plÅ«ra cognÅscendÄ«, a desire of knowing more (not plÅ«rium cognÅscendÅrum).

4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Gerundive construction; but Å«tor, fruor, fungor, potior (originally transitive) regularly admit it; as,--

hostÄ“s in spem potiundÅrum castrÅrum vÄ“nerant, the enemy had conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp.

5. The Genitives meÄ«, tuÄ«, suÄ«, nostrÄ«, vestrÄ«, when used in the Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjectives used substantively. Thus:--

mulier suÄ« servandÄ« causÄ aufÅ«git, _the woman fled for the sake of saving herself_;

lÄ“gÄtÄ« in castra vÄ“nÄ“runt suÄ« pÅ«rgandÄ« causÄ, the envoys came into camp for the purpose of clearing themselves.

So nostrÄ« servandÄ« causÄ, for the sake of saving ourselves.

6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used to denote _purpose_; as,--

quae ille cÄ“pit lÄ“gum ac lÄ«bertÄtis subvertundae, which he undertook for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty.

7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some expressions which have the character of formulas; as,--

decemvirÄ« lÄ“gibus scrÄ«bundÄ«s, _decemvirs for codifying the laws_;

quÄ«ndecimvirÄ« sacrÄ«s faciundÄ«s, quindecimvirs for performing the sacrifices.

THE SUPINE.

340. 1. The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express _purpose_; as,--

lÄ“gÄtÄ« ad Caesarem grÄtulÄtum convÄ“nÄ“runt, envoys came to Caesar to congratulate him.

a. The Supine in -um may take an Object; as,--

pÄcem petÄ«tum ÅrÄtÅrÄ“s RÅmam mittunt, they send envoys to Rome to ask for peace.

b. Note the phrase:--

dÅ (collocÅ) fÄ«liam nÅ«ptum, I give my daughter in marriage.

2. The Supine in -Å« is used as an Ablative of Specification with facilis, difficilis, incrÄ“dibilis, jÅ«cundus, optimus, etc.; also with fÄs est, nefÄs est, opus est; as,--

haec rÄ“s est facilis cognitÅ«, _this thing is easy to learn_;

hÅc est optimum factÅ«, this is best to do.

a. Only a few Supines in -Å« are in common use, chiefly audÄ«tÅ«, cognitÅ«, dictÅ«, factÅ«, vÄ«sÅ«.

b. The Supine in -Å« never takes an Object.

* * * * *

CHAPTER VI.

--_Particles._

COÃ–RDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

341. Copulative Conjunctions. These join one word, phrase, or clause to another.

1. a) et simply connects.

b) -que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where the two members have an internal connection with each other; as,--

parentÄ“s lÄ«berÄ«que, _parents and children_;

cum hominÄ“s aestÅ« febrÄ«que jactantur, when people are tossed about with heat and fever.

c) atque (ac) usually emphasizes the second of the two things connected,--_and also, and indeed, and in fact_. After words of likeness and difference, atque (ac) has the force of as, than. Thus:--

ego idem sentiÅ ac tÅ«, _I think the same as you_;

haud aliter ac, not otherwise than.

d) neque (nec) means and not, neither, nor.

2. a) -que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of two words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses, it is appended to the first word of the second clause; but when the first word of the second clause is a Preposition, -que is regularly appended to the next following word; as,--

ob eamque rem, and on account of that thing.

b) atque is used before vowels and consonants; ac never before vowels, and seldom before c, g, qu.

c) et nÅn is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative rests upon a special word; as,--

vetus et nÅn ignÅbilis ÅrÄtor, an old and not ignoble orator.

d) For and nowhere, and never, and none, the Latin regularly said nec Å«squam, nec umquam, nec Å«llus, etc.

3. Correlatives. Copulative Conjunctions are frequently used correlatively; as,--

et ... et, _both ... and_;

neque (nec) ... neque (nec), _neither ... nor_;

cum ... tum, _while ... at the same time_;

tum ... tum, _not only ... but also_.

Less frequently:--

et ... neque; neque ... et.

a. Note that the Latin, with its tendency to emphasize antithetical relations, often uses correlatives, especially et ... et, et ... neque, neque ... et, where the English employs but a single connective.

4. In enumerations--

a) The different members of a series may follow one another without connectives (Asyndeton; see Â§ 346). Thus:--

ex cupiditÄtibus odia, discidia, discordiae, sÄ“ditiÅnÄ“s, bella nÄscuntur, _from covetous desires spring up hatred, dissension, discord, sedition, wars_.

b) The different members may severally be connected by et (Polysyndeton). Thus:--

hÅrae cÄ“dunt et diÄ“s et mÄ“nsÄ“s et annÄ«, hours and days and months and years pass away.

c) The connective may be omitted between the former members, while the last two are connected by -que (rarely et); as,--

Caesar in CarnutÄ“s, AndÄ“s TuronÄ“sque legiÅnÄ“s dÄ“dÅ«cit, _Caesar leads his legions into the territory of the Carnutes, Andes, and Turones_.

342. Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative.

1. a) aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually exclusive; as,--

cita mors venit aut victÅria laeta, _(either) swift death or glad victory comes_.

b) vel, -ve (enclitic) imply a choice between the alternatives; as,--

quÄ« aethÄ“r vel caelum nÅminÄtur, which is called aether or heaven.

2. Correlatives. Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correlatively; as,--

aut ... aut, _either ... or_;

vel ... vel, _either ... or_;

sÄ«ve ... sÄ«ve, _if ... or if_.

343. Adversative Conjunctions. These denote opposition.

1. a) sed, but, merely denotes opposition.

b) vÄ“rum, but, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used.

c) autem, but on the other hand, however, marks a transition. It is always post-positive.

DEFINITION. A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sentence, but is placed after one or more words.

d) at, but, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an opposing argument.

e) atquÄ« means but yet.

f) tamen, yet, usually stands after the emphatic word, but not always.

g) vÄ“rÅ, however, indeed, in truth, is always post-positive.

2. Note the correlative expressions:--

nÅn sÅlum (nÅn modo) ... sed etiam, _not only ... but also_;

nÅn modo nÅn ... sed nÄ“ ... quidem, _not only not, but not even_; as,--

nÅn modo tibi nÅn Ä«rÄscor, sed nÄ“ reprehendÅ quidem factum tuum, _I not only am not angry with you, but I do not even blame your action_.

a. But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the second member, nÅn modo may be used for nÅn modo nÅn; as,--

adsentÄtiÅ nÅn modo amÄ«cÅ, sed nÄ“ lÄ«berÅ quidem digne est, _flattery is not only not worthy of a friend, but not even of a free man._

344. Illative Conjunctions. These represent the statement which they introduce as following from or as in conformity with what has preceded.

1. a) itaque = and so, accordingly.

b) ergÅ = therefore, accordingly.

c) igitur (regularly post-positive[58]) = therefore, accordingly.

2. Igitur is never combined with et, atque, -que, or neque.

345. Causal Conjunctions. These denote cause, or give an explanation. They are nam, namque, enim (post-positive), etenim, for.

346. Asyndeton. The conjunction is sometimes omitted between coÃ¶rdinate members, particularly in lively or impassioned narration. Thus:--

a) A copulative Conjunction is omitted; as,--

avÄritia Ä«nfÄ«nÄ«ta, Ä«nsatiÄbilis est, _avarice is boundless (and) insatiable_;

Cn. PompejÅ, M. CrassÅ cÅnsulibus, _in the consulship of Gnaeus Pompey (and) Marcus Crassus_.

The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of consuls when the praenomen (_MÄrcus_, Gaius, etc.) is expressed.

b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted; as,--

ratiÅnÄ“s dÄ“fuÄ“runt, Å«bertÄs ÅrÄtiÅnis nÅn dÄ“fuit, _arguments were lacking, (but) abundance of words was not_.

ADVERBS.

347. 1. The following particles, sometimes classed as Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs:--

etiam, also, even.

quoque (always post-positive), also.

quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word. It is sometimes equivalent to the English indeed, in fact, but more frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis.

nÄ“ ... quidem means _not even_; the emphatic word or phrase always stands between; as, nÄ“ ille quidem, not even he.

tamen and vÄ“rÅ, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often employed as Adverbs.

2. Negatives. Two negatives are regularly equivalent to an affirmative as in English, as nÅn nÅ«llÄ«, _some_; but when nÅn, nÄ“mÅ, nihil, numquam, etc., are accompanied by neque ... neque, nÅn ... nÅn, nÅn modo, or nÄ“ ... quidem, the latter particles simply take up the negation and emphasize it; as,--

habeÅ hÄ«c nÄ“minem neque amÄ«cum neque cognÄtum, _I have here no one, neither friend nor relative_.

nÅn enim praetereundum est nÄ“ id quidem, _for not even that must be passed by._

a. Haud in Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier of Adjectives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud sciÅ an. Later writers use it freely with verbs.

* * * * *

CHAPTER VII.

--_Word-order and Sentence-Structure._

A. WORD-ORDER.

348. In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence the Subject stands at the beginning of the sentence, the Predicate at the end; as,--

DÄrÄ«us classem quÄ«ngentÄrum nÄvium comparÄvit, Darius got ready a fleet of five hundred ships.

349. But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrangement is often abandoned, and the emphatic word is put at the beginning, less frequently at the end of the sentence; as,--

magnus in hÅc bellÅ ThemistoclÄ“s fuit, GREAT _was Themistocles in this war_;

aliud iter habÄ“mus nÅ«llum, other course we have NONE.

SPECIAL PRINCIPLES.

350. 1. Nouns. A Genitive or other oblique case regularly follows the word upon which it depends. Thus:--

a) Depending upon a Noun:--

tribÅ«nus plÄ“bis, _tribune of the plebs_;

fÄ«lius rÄ“gis, _son of the king_;

vir magnÄ« animÄ«, a man of noble spirit.

Yet always senÄtÅ«s cÅnsultum, plÄ“bis scÄ«tum.

b) Depending upon an Adjective:--

ignÄrus rÄ“rum, _ignorant of affairs_;

dignÄ« amÄ«citiÄ, _worthy of friendship_;

plÅ«s aequÅ, _more than (what is) fair_.

2. Appositives. An Appositive regularly follows its Subject; as,--

Philippus, rÄ“x Macedonum, _Philip, king of the Macedonians_;

adsentÄtiÅ, vitiÅrum adjÅ«trÄ«x, _flattery, promoter of evils_.

Yet flÅ«men RhÄ“nus, _the River Rhine_; and always in good prose urbs RÅma, the city Rome.

3. The Vocative usually follows one or more words; as,--

audÄ«, Caesar, _hear, Caesar!_

4. Adjectives. No general law can be laid down for the position of Adjectives. On the whole they precede the noun oftener than they follow it.

a. Adjectives of quantity (including _numerals_) regularly precede their noun; as,--

omnÄ“s hominÄ“s, _all men_;

septingentae nÄvÄ“s, seven hundred vessels.

b. Note the force of position in the following:--

media urbs, _the middle of the city_;

urbs media, the middle city,

extrÄ“mum bellum, _the end of the war_;

bellum extrÄ“mum, the last war.

c. RÅmÄnus and LatÄ«nus regularly follow; as,--

senÄtus populusque RÅmÄnus, _the Roman Senate and People_;

lÅ«dÄ« RÅmÄnÄ«, _the Roman games_;

fÄ“riae LatÄ«nae, the Latin holidays.

d. When a Noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a Genitive, a favorite order is: Adjective, Genitive, Noun; as,--

summa omnium rÄ“rum abundantia, the greatest abundance of all things.

5. Pronouns.

a. The Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns regularly precede the Noun; as,--

hÄ«c homÅ, _this man_;

ille homÅ, _that man_;

erant duo itinera, quibus itineribus, etc., _there were two routes, by which_, etc.

quÄ« homÅ? _what sort of man_?

b. But ille in the sense of 'that well known,' 'that famous,' usually stands after its Noun; as,--

testula illa, _that well-known custom of ostracism_;

MÄ“dÄ“a illa, that famous Medea.

c. Possessive and Indefinite Pronouns usually follow their Noun; as,--

pater meus, _my father_;

homÅ quÄ«dam, _a certain man_;

mulier aliqua, some woman.

But for purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes its Noun; as,--

meus pater, MY father (i.e. as opposed to yours, his, etc.).

d. Where two or more Pronouns occur in the same sentence, the Latin is fond of putting them in close proximity; as,--

nisi forte ego vÅbÄ«s cessÄre videor, unless perchance I seem to you to be doing nothing.

6. Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they modify; as,--

valdÄ“ dÄ«ligÄ“ns, _extremely diligent_;

saepe dÄ«xÄ«, _I have often said_;

tÄ“ jam diÅ« hortÄmur, _we have long been urging you_;

paulÅ post, a little after.

7. Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern.

a. But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition and its case; as,--

dÄ“ commÅ«nÄ« hominum memoriÄ, _concerning the common memory of men_;

ad beÄtÄ“ vÄ«vendum, for living happily.

b. When a noun is modified by an Adjective, the Adjective is often placed before the preposition; as,--

magnÅ in dolÅre, _in great grief_;

summÄ cum laude, _with the highest credit_;

quÄ dÄ“ causÄ, _for which cause_;

hanc ob rem, on account of this thing.

c. For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition is put after its case, see Â§ 144, 3.

8. Conjunctions. Autem, enim, and igitur regularly stand in the second place in the sentence, but when combined with est or sunt they often stand third; as,--

ita est enim, for so it is.

9. Words or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to some part of it, regularly stand first; as,--

id ut audÄ«vit, Corcyram dÄ“migrÄvit, when he heard that (referring to the contents of the preceding sentence), _he moved to Corcyra_;

eÅ cum Caesar vÄ“nisset, timentÄ“s cÅnfirmat, when Caesar had come thither (i.e. to the place just mentioned), he encouraged the timid.

10. The Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which are etymologically related; as,--

ut ad senem senex dÄ“ senectÅ«te, sÄ«c hÅc librÅ ad amÄ«cum amÄ«cissimus dÄ“ amÄ«citiÄ scrÄ«psÄ«, _as I, an old man, wrote to an old man, on old age, so in this book, as a fond friend, I have written to a friend, concerning friendship_.

11. Special rhetorical devices for indicating emphasis are the following:--

a) HypÃ©rbaton, which consists in the separation of words that regularly stand together; as,--

septimus mihi OrÄ«ginum liber est in manibus, _the seventh book of my 'Origines' is under way_;

receptÅ Caesar ÅŒricÅ proficÄ«scitur, _having recovered Oricus, Caesar set out_.

b) AnÃ¡phora, which consists in the repetition of the same word or the same word-order in successive phrases; as,--

sed plÄ“nÄ« omnÄ“s sunt librÄ«, plÄ“nae sapientium vÅcÄ“s, plÄ“na exemplÅrum vetustÄs, _but all books are full of it, the voices of sages are full of it, antiquity is full of examples of it_.

c) ChiÃ¡smus,[59] which consists in changing the relative order of words in two antithetical phrases; as,--

multÅs dÄ“fendÄ«, laesÄ« nÄ“minem, _many have I defended, I have injured no one_;

horribilem illum diem aliÄ«s, nÅbÄ«s faustum, _that day dreadful to others, for us fortunate_.

d) SÃ½nchysis, or the interlocked arrangement. This is mostly confined to poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially that of the Imperial Period; as,--

simulÄtam PompejÄnÄrum grÄtiam partium, pretended interest in the Pompeian party.

12. Metrical Close. At the end of a sentence certain cadences were avoided; others were much employed. Thus:--

a) Cadences avoided.

_ v v _ v or _ ; as, esse vidÄ“tur (close of hexameter).

_ v v v or _ ; as, esse potest (close of pentameter).

b) Cadences frequently employed.

_ v _ ; as, auxerant.

_ v _ v ; as, comprobÄvit.

_ v v v _ v ; as, esse videÄtur.

v _ _ v _ ; as, rogÄtÅ« tuÅ.

B. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.

351. 1. Unity of Subject.--In complex sentences the Latin regularly holds to unity of Subject in the different members; as,--

Caesar prÄ«mum suÅ, deinde omnium ex cÅnspectÅ« remÅtÄ«s equÄ«s, ut aequÄtÅ perÄ«culÅ spem fugae tolleret, cohortÄtus suÅs proelium commÄ«sit, _Caesar having first removed his own horse from sight, then the horses of all, in order, by making the danger equal, to take away hope of flight, encouraged his men and joined battle_.

2. A word serving as the common Subject or Object of the main clause and a subordinate one, stands before both; as,--

HaeduÄ« cum sÄ“ dÄ“fendere nÅn possent, lÄ“gÄtÅs ad Caesarem mittunt, _since the Haedui could not defend themselves, they sent envoys to Caesar_;

ille etsÄ« flagrÄbat bellandÄ« cupiditÄte, tamen pÄcÄ« serviendum putÄvit, _although he was burning with a desire to fight, yet he thought he ought to aim at peace_.

a. The same is true also

1) When the Subject of the main clause is Object (Direct or Indirect) of a subordinate clause; as,--

Caesar, cum hÅc eÄ« nÅ«ntiatum esset, mÄtÅ«rat ab urbe proficÄ«scÄ«, when this had been reported to Caesar he hastened to set out from the city.

2) When the Subject of a subordinate clause is at the same time the Object (Direct or Indirect) of the main clause; as,--

L. MÄnliÅ, cum dictÄtor fuisset, M. PompÅnius tribÅ«nus plÄ“bis diem dÄ«xit, _M. Pomponius, tribune of the people, instituted proceedings against Lucius Manlius, though he had been dictator_.

3. Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative clauses more commonly precede the main clause; indirect questions and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follow; as,--

postquam haec dÄ«xit, profectus est, _after he said this, he set out_;

sÄ« quis ita agat, imprÅ«dÄ“ns sit, _if any one should act so, he would be devoid of foresight_;

accidit ut Å«nÄ nocte omnÄ“s Hermae dÄ“icerentur, it happened that in a single night all the Hermae were thrown down.

4. Sometimes in Latin the main verb is placed within the subordinate clause; as,--

sÄ« quid est in mÄ“ ingenÄ«, quod sentiÅ quam sit exiguum, _if there is any talent in me, and I know how little it is_.

5. The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used, designates a compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are inserted within the main clause; as,--

Caesar etsÄ« intellegÄ“bat quÄ dÄ“ causÄ ea dÄ«cerentur, tamen, nÄ“ aestÄtem in TrÄ“verÄ«s cÅnsÅ«mere cÅgerÄ“tur, IndutiomÄrum ad sÄ“ venÄ«re jussit, _though Caesar perceived why this was said, yet, lest he should be forced to spend the summer among the Treveri, he ordered Indutiomarus to come to him_.

In the Periodic structure the thought is suspended until the end of the sentence is reached. Many Roman writers were extremely fond of this sentence-structure, and it was well adapted to the inflectional character of their language; in English we generally avoid it.

6. When there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the Latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs. Thus:--

At hostÄ“s cum mÄ«sissent, quÄ«, quae in castrÄ«s gererentur, cognÅscerent, ubi sÄ“ dÄ“ceptÅs intellÄ“xÄ“runt, omnibus cÅpiÄ«s subsecÅ«tÄ« ad flÅ«men contendunt, _but the enemy when they had sent men to learn what was going on in camp, after discovering that they had been outwitted, followed with all their forces and hurried to the river_.

* * * * *

CHAPTER VIII.

-_Hints on Latin Style._

352. In this chapter brief consideration is given to a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to style than to formal grammar.

NOUNS.

353. 1. Where a distinct reference to several persons or things is involved, the Latin is frequently much more exact in the use of the Plural than is the English; as,--

domÅs eunt, _they go home (i.e. to their homes_);

GermÄnÄ« corpora cÅ«rant, _the Germans care for the body_;

animÅs mÄ«litum recreat, _he renews the courage of the soldiers_;

diÄ“s noctÄ“sque timÄ“re, to be in a state of fear day and night.

2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the Singular; as,--

omnia sunt perdÄ«ta, _everything is lost_;

quae cum ita sint, _since this is so_;

haec omnibus pervulgÄta sunt, this is very well known to all.

3. The Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and especially less bold in the personification of abstract qualities. Thus:--

Ä puerÅ, Ä puerÄ«s, _from boyhood_;

SullÄ dictÄtÅre, _in Sulla's dictatorship_;

mÄ“ duce, _under my leadership_;

RÅmÄnÄ« cum CarthÄginiÄ“nsibus pÄcem fÄ“cÄ“runt = _Rome made peace with Carthage_;

liber doctrÄ«nae plÄ“nus = _a learned book_;

prÅ«dentiÄ ThemistoclÄ«s Graecia servÄta est = _Themistocles's foresight saved Greece_.

4. The Nouns of Agency in -tor and -sor (see Â§ 147, 1) denote a permanent or _characteristic activity_; as,--

accÅ«sÄtÅrÄ“s, _(professional) accusers_;

ÅrÄtÅrÄ“s, _pleaders_;

cantÅrÄ“s, _singers_;

Arminius, GermÄniae lÄ«berÄtor, _Arminius, liberator of Germany_.

a. To denote single instances of an action, other expressions are commonly employed; as,--

Numa, quÄ« RÅmulÅ successit, _Numa, successor of Romulus_;

quÄ« mea legunt, _my readers_;

quÄ« mÄ“ audiunt, my auditors.

5. The Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of a Noun. In English we say: '_The war against Carthage_'; '_a journey through Gaul_'; '_cities on the sea_'; '_the book in my hands_'; '_the fight at Salamis_'; etc. The Latin in such cases usually employs another mode of expression. Thus:--

a) A Genitive; as,--

dolor injÅ«riÄrum, resentment at injuries.

b) An Adjective; as,--

urbÄ“s maritimae, _cities on the sea_;

pugna SalamÄ«nia, the fight at Salamis.

c) A Participle; as,--

pugna ad CannÄs facta, the battle at Cannae.

d) A Relative clause; as,--

liber quÄ« in meÄ«s manibus est, the book in my hands.

NOTE.--Yet within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepositional phrases as Noun modifiers. This is particularly frequent when the governing noun is derived from a verb. The following are typical examples:--

trÄnsitus in Britanniam, _the passage to Britain_;

excessus Ä“ vÄ«tÄ, _departure from life_;

odium ergÄ RÅmÄnÅs, _hatred of the Romans_;

liber dÄ“ senectÅ«te, _the book on old age_;

amor in patriam, _love for one's country_.

ADJECTIVES.

354. 1. Special Latin Equivalents for English Adjectives are--

a) A Genitive; as,--

virtÅ«tÄ“s animÄ« = _moral virtues_;

dolÅrÄ“s corporis = bodily ills.

b) An Abstract Noun; as,--

novitÄs reÄ« = _the strange circumstance_;

asperitÄs viÄrum = rough roads.

c) Hendiadys (see Â§ 374, 4); as,--

ratiÅ et ÅrdÅ = _systematic order_;

Ärdor et impetus = eager onset.

d) Sometimes an Adverb; as,--

omnÄ“s circÄ populÄ«, _all the surrounding tribes_;

suÅs semper hostÄ“s, their perpetual foes.

2. Often a Latin Noun is equivalent to an English Noun modified by an Adjective; as,--

doctrÄ«na, _theoretical knowledge_;

prÅ«dentia, _practical knowledge_;

oppidum, _walled town_;

libellus, little book.

3. Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper names; but an Adjective may limit vir, homÅ, ille, or some other word used as an Appositive of a proper name; as,--

SÅcratÄ“s, homÅ sapiÄ“ns = _the wise Socrates_;

ScÄ«piÅ, vir fortissimus = _the doughty Scipio_;

SyrÄcÅ«sae, urbs praeclÄrissima = famous Syracuse.

4. An Adjective may be equivalent to a Possessive or Subjective Genitive; as,--

pÄstor rÄ“gius, _the shepherd of the king_;

tumultus servÄ«lis, the uprising of the slaves.

PRONOUNS.

355. 1. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fondness for connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the main one; as,--

Ä quÅ cum quaererÄ“tur, quid maximÄ“ expedÄ«ret, respondit, _when it was asked of him what was best, he replied_. (Less commonly, quÄ«, cum ab eÅ quaererÄ“tur, respondit.)

2. Uterque, ambÅ. Uterque means _each of two_; ambÅ means _both_; as,--

uterque frÄter abiit, each of the two brothers departed (i.e. separately);

ambÅ frÄtrÄ“s abiÄ“runt, i.e. the two brothers departed together.

a. The Plural of uterque occurs--

1) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see Â§ 56); as,--

in utrÄ«sque castrÄ«s, in each camp.

2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of persons or things; as,--

utrÄ«que ducÄ“s clÄrÄ« fuÄ“runt, the generals on each side (several in number) were famous.

VERBS.

356. 1. In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs, a Passive is supplied:--

a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with esse, etc.; as,--

in odiÅ sumus, _we are hated_;

in invidiÄ sum, _I am envied_;

admÄ«rÄtiÅnÄ« est, _he is admired_;

oblÄ«viÅne obruitur, he is forgotten (lit. _is overwhelmed by oblivion_);

in Å«sÅ« esse, to be used.

b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. Thus:--

agitÄrÄ« as Passive of persequÄ«;

temptÄrÄ« as Passive of adorÄ«rÄ«.

2. The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied--

a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Deponent; as,--

adhortÄtus, _having exhorted_;

veritus, having feared.

b) By the Ablative Absolute; as,--

hostium agrÄ«s vÄstÄtÄ«s Caesar exercitum redÅ«xit, _having ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back his army_.

c) By subordinate clauses; as,--

eÅ cum advÄ“nisset, castra posuit, _having arrived there, he pitched a camp_;

hostes quÄ« in urbem irrÅ«perant, the enemy having burst into the city.

3. The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense (= '_one_'). _Cf._ the English '_You can drive a horse to water, but you can't make him drink._' But in Latin this use is mainly confined to certain varieties of the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (Â§ 280), Jussive (Â§ 275), Deliberative (Â§ 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the sort included under Â§ 302, 2, and 303. Examples:--

vidÄ“rÄ“s, _you could see_;

Å«tÄre vÄ«ribus, use your strength,

quid hÅc homine faciÄs, _what are you to do with this man_?

mÄ“ns quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lÅ«minÄ« oleum Ä«nstÄ«llÄ“s, exstinguuntur senectÅ«te, _the intellect and mind too are extinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouring oil into the lamp_;

tantÅ amÅre possessiÅnÄ“s suÄs amplexÄ« tenÄ“bant, ut ab eÄ«s membra dÄ«vellÄ« citius posse dÄ«cerÄ“s, _they clung to their possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies_.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

357. 1. To denote '_so many years, etc., afterwards or before_' the Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with post and ante (see Â§ 223), but has other forms of expression. Thus:--

post quÄ«nque annÅs, _five years afterward_;

paucÅs ante diÄ“s, _a few days before_;

ante quadriennium, _four years before_;

post diem quÄrtum quam ab urbe discesserÄmus, _four days after we had left the city_;

ante tertium annum quam dÄ“cesserat, three years before he had died.

2. The Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the same Infinitive; as,--

RÅmÄnÅs Hannibalem vÄ«cisse cÅnstat.

Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the Romans. Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infinitive; as,--

RÅmÄnÅs ab Hannibale victÅs esse cÅnstat, it is well established that the Romans were defeated by Hannibal.

PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OF THE DATIVE.

358. 1. The English for does not always correspond to a Dative notion in Latin, but is often the equivalent of prÅ with the Ablative, viz. in the senses--

a) _In defense of_; as,--

prÅ patriÄ morÄ«, _to die for one's country_.

b) Instead of, _in behalf of_; as,--

Å«nus prÅ omnibus dÄ«xit, _one spoke for all_;

haec prÅ lÄ“ge dicta sunt, these things were said for the law.

c) _In proportion to_; as,--

prÅ multitÅ«dine hominum eÅrum fÄ«nÄ“s erant angustÄ«, _for the population, their territory was small_.

2. Similarly, English to when it indicates motion is rendered in Latin by ad.

a. Note, however, that the Latin may say either scrÄ«bere ad aliquem, or scrÄ«bere alicui, according as the idea of motion is or is not predominant. So in several similar expressions.

3. In the poets, verbs of mingling with, contending with, joining, clinging to, etc., sometimes take the Dative. This construction is a Grecism. Thus:--

sÄ“ miscet virÄ«s, _he mingles with the men_;

contendis HomÄ“rÅ, _you contend with Homer_;

dextrae dextram jungere, to clasp hand with hand.

PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE.

359. 1. The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor, the Dative of Possessor emphasizes _the fact of possession_; as,--

hortus patris est, _the garden is my father's_;

mihi hortus est, I possess a garden.

2. The Latin can say either stultÄ« or stultum est dÄ«cere, _it is foolish to say_; but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Genitive; as,--

sapientis est haec sÄ“cum reputÄre, it is the part of a wise man to consider this.

* * * * *

PART VI.

PROSODY.

360. Prosody treats of metres and versification.

361. Latin Verse. Latin Poetry was essentially different in character from English. In our own language, poetry is based upon accent, and poetical form consists essentially in a certain succession of accented and unaccented syllables. Latin poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon accent, but upon quantity, so that with the Romans poetical form consisted in a certain succession of long and short syllables, i.e. of long and short intervals of time.

This fundamental difference in the character of English and Latin poetry is a natural result of the difference in character of the two languages. English is a strongly accented language, in which quantity is relatively subordinate. Latin, on the other hand, was a quantitative language, in which accent was relatively subordinate.

QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

362. The general principles for the quantity of vowels and syllables have been given above in Â§ 5. The following peculiarities are to be noted here:--

1. A vowel is usually short when followed by another vowel (Â§ 5, A, 2), but the following exceptions occur:--

a) In the Genitive termination -Ä«us (except alterÄus); as, illÄ«us, tÅtÄ«us. Yet the i may be short in poetry; as, illÄus, tÅtÄus.

b) In the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth Declension; as, diÄ“Ä«, aciÄ“Ä«. But fidÄ•Ä«, rÄ•Ä«, spÄ•Ä« (Â§ 52, 1).

c) In fÄ«Å, excepting fit and forms where i is followed by er. Thus: fÄ«Ä“bam, fÄ«at, fÄ«unt; but fÄerÄ«, fÄerem.

d) In a few other words, especially words derived from the Greek; as, dÄ«us, AenÄ“Äs, DÄrÄ«us, hÄ“rÅes, etc.

2. A diphthong is usually long (Â§ 5, B, 2), but the preposition prae in composition is often shortened before a vowel; as, prÄƒÄ•acÅ«tus.

3. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (Â§ 5, B, 2) is long, even when one of the consonants is in the following word; as, terret populum. Occasionally the syllable is long when both consonants are in the following word; as, prÅ segete spÄ«cÄs.

4. Compounds of jaciÅ, though written inicit, adicit, etc., have the first syllable long, as though written inj-, adj-.

5. Before j, Äƒ and Ä• made a long syllable, e.g. in major, pejor, ejus, ejusdem, Pompejus, rejÄ“cit, etc. These were pronounced, mai-jor, pei-jor, ei-jus, Pompei-jus, rei-jÄ“cit, etc. So also sometimes before i, e.g. Pompe-Ä«, pronounced Pompei-Ä«; re-iciÅ, pronounced rei-iciÅ.

Quantity of Final Syllables.

_A. Final Syllables ending in a Vowel._

363. 1. Final a is mostly short, but is long:--

a) In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension; as, portÄ.

b) In the Imperative; as, laudÄ.

c) In indeclinable words (except itÄƒ, quiÄƒ); as, trÄ«gintÄ, contrÄ, posteÄ, intereÄ, etc.

2. Final e is usually short, but is long:--

a) In the Ablative Singular of the Fifth Declension; as, diÄ“, rÄ“; hence hodiÄ“, quÄrÄ“. Here belongs also famÄ“ (Â§ 59, 2, b).

b) In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation; as, monÄ“, habÄ“, etc.; yet occasionally cavÄ•, valÄ•.

c) In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second Declension, along with ferÄ“ and fermÄ“. BenÄ•, malÄ•, temerÄ•, saepÄ• have Ä•.

d) In Ä“, dÄ“, mÄ“, tÄ“, sÄ“, nÄ“ (not, _lest_), nÄ“ (_verily_).

3. Final i is usually long, but is short in nisÄ and quasÄ. Mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, have regularly Ä, but sometimes Ä«; yet always ibÄ«dem, ibÄ«que, ubÄ«que.

4. Final o is regularly long, but is short:--

a) In egÅ, duÅ, modÅ (_only_), citÅ.

b) Rarely in the First Person Singular of the Verb, and in Nominatives of the Third Declension; as, amÅ, leÅ.

c) In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro, especially before f; as prÅfundere, prÅficÄ«scÄ«, prÅfugere.

5. Final u is always long.

_B. Final Syllables ending in a Consonant._

364. 1. Final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are short. The following words, however, have a long vowel: sÄl, sÅl, LÄr, pÄr, vÄ“r, fÅ«r, dÄ«c, dÅ«c, Ä“n, nÅn, quÄ«n, sÄ«n, sÄ«c, cÅ«r. Also the adverbs hÄ«c, illÄ«c, istÄ«c.[60]

2. Final syllables in -as are long; as, terrÄs, amÄs.

3. Final syllables in -es are regularly long, but are short:--

a) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of dental stems (Â§ 33) of the Third Declension which have a short penult in the Genitive; as, segÄ•s (segetis), obsÄ•s (obsidis), mÄ«lÄ•s, dÄ«vÄ•s. But a few have -Ä“s; viz. pÄ“s, ariÄ“s, abiÄ“s, pariÄ“s.

b) In Ä“s (_thou art_), penÄ“s.

4. Final -os is usually long, but short in Ås (ossis), compÅs, impÅs.

5. Final -is is usually short, but is long:--

a) In Plurals; as, portÄ«s, hortÄ«s, nÅbÄ«s, vÅbÄ«s, nÅ«bÄ«s (Acc.).

b) In the Second Person Singular Perfect Subjunctive Active; as, amÄverÄ«s, monuerÄ«s, audÄ«verÄ«s, etc. Yet occasional exceptions occur.

c) In the Second Person Singular Present Indicative Active of the Fourth Conjugation; as, audÄ«s.

d) In vÄ«s, _force_; Ä«s, _thou goest_; fÄ«s; sÄ«s; velÄ«s; nÅlÄ«s; vÄ«s, thou wilt (mÄvÄ«s, quamvÄ«s, quÄ«vÄ«s, etc.).

6. Final -us is usually short, but is long:--

a) In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural of the Fourth Declension; as, frÅ«ctÅ«s.

_b_) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of those nouns of the Third Declension in which the u belongs to the stem; as, palÅ«s (-Å«dis), servitÅ«s (-Å«tis), tellÅ«s (-Å«ris).

365. Greek Nouns retain in Latin their original quantity; as, AenÄ“Ä, epitomÄ“, DÄ“los, Pallas, SimoÄ«s, SalamÄ«s, DÄ«dÅ«s, ParidÄ«, ÄÄ“r, aethÄ“r, crÄtÄ“r, hÄ“rÅÄƒs. Yet Greek nouns in -Ï‰Ï (-År) regularly shorten the vowel of the final syllable; as, rhÄ“tÅr, HectÅr.

VERSE-STRUCTURE.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

366. 1. The metrical unit in versification is a short syllable, technically called a mora ( v ). A long syllable ( _ ) is regarded as equivalent to two morae.

2. A Foot is a group of syllables. The following are the most important kinds of fundamental feet:--

FEET OF THREE MORAE. FEET OF FOUR MORAE. _ v Trochee. _ v v Dactyl. v _ Iambus. v v _ Anapaest.

3. A Verse is a succession of feet.

4. The different kinds of verses are named Trochaic, Iambic, Dactylic, Anapaestic, according to the foot which forms the basis of their structure.

5. Ictus. In every fundamental foot the long syllable naturally receives the greater prominence. This prominence is called ictus.[61] It is denoted thus: _/ v v ; _/ v .

6. Thesis and Arsis. The syllable which receives the ictus is called the thesis; the rest of the foot is called the arsis.

7. Elision. Final syllables ending in a vowel, a diphthong, or -m are regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h. In reading, we omit the elided syllable entirely. This may be indicated as follows: corpor^e in Å«nÅ; mult^um ill^e et; mÅnstr^um horrendum; caus^ae Ä«rÄrum.

a. Omission of elision is called HiÃ¡tus. It occurs especially before and after monosyllabic interjections; as, ÅŒ et praesidium.

8. The ending of a word within a foot is called a CaesÃºra (_cutting_) Every verse usually has one prominent caesura. The ending of a word and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis.

9. Verses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic. A Catalectic verse is one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one or more syllables; an Acatalectic verse has its last foot complete.

10. At the end of a verse a slight pause occurred. Hence the final syllable may be either long or short (syllaba anceps), and may terminate in a vowel or m, even though the next verse begins with a vowel.

11. Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated as dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the number of dipodies (pairs of feet) which they contain. Dactylic verses are measured by single feet, and are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, accordingly.

SPECIAL PECULIARITIES.

367. 1. SynizÃ©sis (synaÃ©resis). Two successive vowels in the interior of a word are often united into a long syllable; as,--

aur{eÄ«}s, d{ei}nde, ant{eÄ«}re, d{ee}sse.

2. DiÃ¡stole. A syllable usually short is sometimes long; as,--

vidÄ“t, audÄ«t.

3. SÃ½stole. A syllable usually long is sometimes short; as,--

stetÄ•runt.

a. Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes. They usually represent an earlier pronunciation which had passed out of vogue in the ordinary speech.

4. After a consonant, i and u sometimes become j and v. The preceding syllable then becomes long; as,--

abjete for abiete; genva for genua.

5. Sometimes v becomes u; as,--

silua for silva; dissoluÅ for dissolvÅ.

6. Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable. Such a verse is called an HypÃ©rmeter. The extra syllable ends in a vowel or -m, and is united with the initial vowel or h of the next verse by SynaphÃ©ia. Thus:--

... ignÄr^Ä« hominumque locÅrum^que errÄmus.

7. Tmesis (cutting). Compound words are occasionally separated into their elements; as,--

quÅ mÄ“ cumque rapit tempestÄs, for quÅcumque, etc.

8. SÃ½ncope. A short vowel is sometimes dropped between two consonants; as,--

repostus for repositus

THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.

368. 1. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. But in all the feet except the fifth, a spondee ( _ _ ) may take the place of the dactyl. The sixth foot may be either a spondee or a trochee, since the final syllable of a verse may be either long or short (syllaba anceps). The following represents the scheme of the verse:--

_/ vv (or _) ; _/ vv (or _) ; _/ vv (or _) ; _/ vv (or _) ; _/ vv ; _/ v (or _).

2. Sometimes we find a spondee in the fifth foot. Such verses are called Spondaic. A dactyl usually stands in the fourth place, and the fifth and sixth feet are generally made up of a quadrisyllable; as,--

armÄtum^que aurÅ circumspicit ÅŒrÄ«Åna.

cÄra deum subolÄ“s, magnum Jovis incrÄ“mentum.

3. Caesura.

a) The favorite position of the caesura in the Dactylic Hexameter is after the thesis of the third foot; as,--

arma virumque canÅ || TrÅjae quÄ« prÄ«mus ab ÅrÄs.

b) Less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the fourth foot, usually accompanied by another in the second foot; as,--

inde torÅ || pater AenÄ“Äs || sÄ«c Årsus ab alt^Å est.

c) Sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short syllables of the third foot; as,--

ÅŒ passÄ« graviÅra || dabit deus hÄ«s quoque fÄ«nem.

This caesura is called Feminine, as opposed to the caesura after a long syllable, which is called Masculine (as under a and b)

d) A pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot. This is called the Bucolic Diaeresis, as it was borrowed by the Romans from the Bucolic poetry of the Greeks. Thus:--

sÅlstitium pecorÄ« dÄ“fendite; || jam venit aestÄs.

DACTYLIC PENTAMETER.

369. 1. The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts, each of which contains two dactyls, followed by a long syllable. Spondees may take the place of the dactyls in the first part, but not in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word. The scheme is the following:--

_/ vv (or _) _/ vv (or _) _/ || _/ vv _/ vv v (or _).

2. The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection with the Hexameter. The two arranged alternately form the so-called Elegiac Distich. Thus:--

Vergilium vÄ«dÄ« tantum, neo amÄra TibullÅ Tempus amÄ«citiae fÄta dedÄ“re meae.

IAMBIC MEASURES.

370. 1. The most important Iambic verse is the Iambic Trimeter (Â§ 366, 11), called also Senarius. This is an acatalectic verse. It consists of six Iambi. Its pure form is:--

v _ v _ v _ v _ v _ v _ BeÄtus ille quÄ« procul negÅtiÄ«s.

The Caesura usually occurs in the third foot; less frequently in the fourth.

2. In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach ( v v v ) may stand in any foot but the last. In the odd feet (first, third, and fifth) may stand a Spondee, Dactyl, or Anapaest, though the last two are less frequent. Sometimes a Proceleusmatic ( v v v v ) occurs.

3. In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great freedom is permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus, viz. the Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely admitted in any foot except the last.

* * * * *

SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.

I. JULIAN CALENDAR.

371. 1. The names of the Roman months are: JÄnuÄrius, FebruÄrius, MÄrtius, AprÄ«lis, Majus, JÅ«nius, JÅ«lius (QuÄ«ntÄ«lis[62] prior to 46 B.C.), Augustus (SextÄ«lis[62] before the Empire), September, OctÅber, November, December. These words are properly Adjectives in agreement with mÄ“nsis understood.

2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month:--

a) The Calends, the first of the month.

b) The Nones, usually the fifth of the month, but the seventh in March, May, July, and October.

c) The Ides, usually the thirteenth of the month, but the fifteenth in March, May, July, and October.

3. From these points dates were reckoned backward; consequently all days after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days before the Calends of the month next following.

4. The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month is designated as prÄ«diÄ“ KalendÄs, NÅnÄs, ÄªdÅ«s. The second day before was designated as diÄ“ tertiÅ ante KalendÄs, NÅnÄs, etc. Similarly the third day before was designated as diÄ“ quÄrtÅ, and so on. These designations are arithmetically inaccurate, but the Romans reckoned both ends of the series. The Roman numeral indicating the date is therefore always larger by one than the actual number of days before Nones, Ides, or Calends.

5. In indicating dates, the name of the month is added in the form of an Adjective agreeing with KalendÄs, NÅnÄs, ÄªdÅ«s. Various forms of expression occur, of which that given under d) is most common:--

===================================================================== Days |March,May,July|January, August| April,June, | of the| October. | December | September, | February month.| | | November | ------+--------------+---------------+---------------+--------------- 1 |KALENDÄªS |KALENDÄªS |KALENDÄªS |KALENDÄªS 2 |VI NÅnÄs |IV NÅnÄs |IV NÅnÄs |IV NÅnÄs 3 |V " |III " |III " |III " 4 |IV " |PrÄ«diÄ“ NÅnÄs |PrÄ«diÄ“ NÅnÄs |PrÄ«diÄ“ NÅnÄs 5 |III " |NÅŒNÄªS |NÅŒNÄªS |NÅŒNÄªS 6 |PrÄ«diÄ“ NÅnÄs |VIII ÄªdÅ«s |VIII ÄªdÅ«s |VIII ÄªdÅ«s 7 |NÅŒNÄªS |VII " |VII " |VII " 8 |VIII ÄªdÅ«s |VI " |VI " |VI " 9 |VII " |V " |V " |V " 10 |VI " |IV " |IV " |IV " 11 |V " |III " |III " |III " 12 |IV " |Pr. ÄªdÅ«s |Pr. ÄªdÅ«s |Pr. ÄªdÅ«s 13 |III " |ÄªDIBUS |ÄªDIBUS |ÄªDIBUS 14 |Pr. ÄªdÅ«s |XIX Kalend. |XVIII Kalend.|XVI Kalend. 15 |ÄªDIBUS |XVIII " |XVII " |XV " 16 |XVII Kalend. |XVII " |XVI " |XIV " 17 |XVI " |XVI " |XV " |XIII " 18 |XV " |XV " |XIV " |XII " 19 |XIV " |XIV " |XIII " |XI " 20 |XIII " |XIII " |XII " |X " 21 |XII " |XII " |XI " |IX " 22 |XI " |XI " |X " |VIII " 23 |X " |X " |IX " |VII " 24 |IX " |IX " |VIII " |VI " 25 |VIII " |VIII " |VII " |V (bis VI)" 26 |VII " |VII " |VI " |IV (V) " 27 |VI " |VI " |V " |III (IV) " 28 |V " |V " |IV " |Pr.Kal.(III K.) 29 |IV " |IV " |III " |(PrÄ«d. Kal.) 30 |III " |III " |Pr. Kalend. |(Enclosed forms are 31 |Pr. Kalend. |Pr. Kalend. | |for leap-year.) ===================================================================== * * * * *

II. PROPER NAMES.

373. 1. The name of a Roman citizen regularly consisted of three parts: the praenÅmen (or given name), the nÅmen (name of the gens or clan), and the cognÅmen (family name). Such a typical name is exemplied by MÄrcus Tullius CicerÅ, in which MÄrcus is the praenÅmen, Tullius the nÅmen, and CicerÅ the cognÅmen. Sometimes a second cognÅmen (in later Latin called an agnÅmen) is added--expecially in honor of military achievements; as,--

GÄius CornÄ“lius ScÄ«piÅ Ä€fricÄnus.

2. ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER NAMES.

A. = Aulus. Mam. = MÄmercus. App. = Appius. N. = Numerius. C. = GÄius. P. = PÅ«blius. Cn. = Gnaeus. Q. = QuÄ«ntus. D. = Decimus. Sex. = Sextus. K. = KaesÅ. Ser. = Servius. L. = LÅ«cius. Sp. = Spurius. M. = MÄrcus. T. = Titus. M'. = MÄnius. Ti. = Tiberius.

* * * * *

III. FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC.

_A._ Figures of Syntax.

374. 1. EllÃpsis is the omission of one or more words; as,--

quid multa, _why (should I say) much?_

2. BrachÃ½logy is a brief or condensed form of expression; as,--

ut ager sine cultÅ«rÄ frÅ«ctuÅsus esse nÅn potest, sÄ«c sine doctrÄ«nÄ animus, _as a field cannot be productive without cultivation, so the mind (cannot be productive) without learning._

Special varieties of Brachylogy are--

a) Zeugma, in which one verb is made to stand for two; as,--

minÄ«s aut blandÄ«mentÄ«s corrupta = _(terrifed) by threats or corrupted by flattery._

b) Compendiary Comparison, by which a modifier of an object is mentioned instead of the object itself; as,--

dissimilis erat CharÄ“s eÅrum et factÄ«s et mÅribus, lit. Chares was different from their conduct and character i.e. Chares's conduct and character were different, etc.

3. PlÃ©onasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression; as,--

prius praedÄ«cam, lit. I will first say in advance.

4. HendÃadys (â€›ÎµÎ½ Î´Î¹Î± Î´Ï…Î¿Î¹Î½, _one through two_) is the use of two nouns joined by a conjunction, in the sense of a noun modified by a Genitive or an Adjective; as,--

febris et aestus, _the heat of fever_;

celeritÄte cursÅ«que, by swift running.

5. ProlÃ©psis, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet in advance of the action which makes it appropriate; as,--

submersÄs obrue puppÄ“s, lit. overwhelm their submerged ships, i.e. overwhelm and sink their ships.

a. The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we should expect it to stand as subject of a subordinate clause. Thus:--

nÅstÄ« MÄrcellum quam tardus sit, you know how slow Marcellus is (lit. _you know Marcellus, how slow he is_).

Both varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry.

6. AnacolÃºthon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the construction of the sentence; as,--

tum AncÄ« fÄ«liÄ« ... impÄ“nsius eÄ«s indignitÄs crÄ“scere, _then the sons of Ancus ... their indignation increased all the more_.

7. HÃ½steron PrÃ³teron consists in the inversion of the natural order of two words or phrases; as,--

moriÄmur et in media arma ruÄmus = let us rush into the midst of arms and die.

B. Figures of Rhetoric.

375. 1. LÃtotes (literally _softening_) is the expression of an idea by the denial of its opposite; as,--

haud parum labÅris, no little toil (i.e. much toil);

nÅn ignÅrÅ, I am not ignorant (_i.e._ I am well aware).

2. OxymÃ³ron is the combination of contradictory conceptions; as,--

sapiÄ“ns Ä«nsÄnia, wise folly.

3. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial); as,--

sÄ“nsim sine sÄ“nsÅ« aetÄs senÄ“scit.

4. OnomatopÅ“ia is the suiting of sound to sense; as,--

quadrupedante putrem sonitÅ« quatit ungula campum, 'And shake with horny hoofs the solid ground.'

* * * * *

INDEX OF THE SOURCES OF THE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES CITED IN THE SYNTAX.[63]

Â§ 162. nonne videtis, _Sest._ 47. num exspectas, _Phil._ ii, 86. videsne, _Vatin._ 30. sensistine, _Cat._ 1, 8. a rebus, _de Sen._ 15. visne locum, _Leg._ ii, 1. estisne, _Liv._ i, 38, 2. jam ea, _Ter. Phor._ 525. estne frater, _Ter. Ad._ 569.

Â§ 166. decorum est, _Hor. Od._ iii, 2, 13. opportune accidit _Att._ i, 17, 2.

Â§ 168. Numa, _Eut._ i, 3. philosophia, _Tusc. Disp._ ii, 16.

Â§ 169. assentatio, _Lael._ 89. Corinthi, _Tac. H._ ii, 1.

Â§ 171. audi tu, Livy, i, 24. nate, mea, _Aen._ i, 664.

Â§ 174. rumor est, _Ter. And._ 185.

Â§ 175. galeam, _Aen._ ii, 392. cinctus, _Ov. Am._ iii, 9, 61 nodo sinus, _Aen._ i, 320.

Â§ 176. idem gloriari, _de Sen._ 32. eadem peccat, _N.D._ i, 31. multa egeo, _Gell._ xiii, 24. multum valet, _Hor. Epp._ i, 6, 52. nihil peccat, _Stat._ 161. minitantem vana, _Sil._ i, 306 acerba tuens, _Lucr._ v, 33. dulce loquentem, _Hor. Od._ i, 22, 24. multum sunt, _B.G._ iv, 1, 8. servitutem, _Pl. Pers._ 34 a. vitam, _Ter. Ad._ 859. stadium _Off._ iii, 10, 42. Olympia, _de Sen._ 14. piscis, _Sen. N.Q._ iii, 18, 2. orationes, _Brut._ 82.

Â§ 177. homines, _Rosc. Am._ 101.

Â§ 178. otium, _Hor. Od._ ii, 16, 1. me duas, _Att._ ii, 7, 1. te litteras, _Pis._ 73. hoc te, _Ter. Hec._ 766. me id, _Pl. Tr._ 96. non te, _Fam._ ii, 16, 3. omnes artes, _Liv._ 25, 37. rogatus, _de Dom._ 16. multa, _N.D._ ii, 166.

Â§ 179. milites, _B.C._ i, 54.

Â§ 180. tremit, _Lucr._ iii, 489. nuda, _Aen._ i, 320. manus, _Aen._ ii, 57.

Â§ 181. hic locus, _B.G._ i, 49.

Â§ 182. Thalam, _Sall. Jug._ 75, 1. Thurios in, _Nep. Alc._ 4. cum Acen, _Nep. Dat._ 5. Italiam venit, _Aen._ i, 2.

Â§ 187. amicis, _Sall. C._ 16, 4. Orgetorix, _B.G._ i, 2. munitioni, _B.G._ i, 10.

Â§ 188. mihi ante, _Verr._ v, 123. illi, _Tac. Ag._ 9. intercludere, _Pl. M.G._ 223. oppidum, _B.C._ iii, 80 tu mihi, _Verr._ 3, 213. quid mihi, _Hor. Epp._ i, 3, 15. erit ille, _Ecl._ i, 7. quae ista, _Par._ 41. honorem, _Verr._ iv, 25. Caesar, _Div._ ii, 79. scintillam, _Aen._ i, 174.

Â§ 189. disputatio, _Tusc. Disp._ ii, 2. honesta, _Off._ iii, 38.

Â§ 191. castris, _B.G._ vii, 16. legiones, _B.C._ ii, 22. receptui, _B.G._ vii, 47. fortunae, _Fam._ vi, 5, 1. quibus, _Flac._ 19. hos tibi, _Nep. Paus._ 2. me gerendo, _Liv._ i, 23. noxiae, _Leg._ iii, 11.

Â§ 192. it clamor, _Aen._ v, 451.

Â§ 193. dum Latio, _Aen._ i, 6.

Â§ 203. magni, _Nep. Cat._ 1, 2. tantae molis, _Aen._ i, 33.

Â§ 204. viri, _Tusc. Disp._ ii, 43. memoria, _Or._ 54.

Â§ 206. Epicuri, F. v, 3. praeteritorum, _Div._ i, 63. nomina, _Pl. Poen._ 1062. reminiscere, _B.G._ i, 13. reminiscens, _Nep. Alc._ 6. mihi patriae, _Sull._ 19.

Â§ 207. te veteris, _ad Her._ iv, 24, 33. me admones, _ad Att._ v, 1, 3.

Â§ 208. pecuniae, _Flacc._ 43.

Â§ 209. miseremini, _Verr._ 1, 72.

Â§ 212. desine, _Hor. Od._ ii, 9, 17. operum, _Hor. Od._ iii, 17, 16.

Â§ 214. p. 142, curis, _Marc._ 34. Caesar, _B.G._ 5, 51. caret, _Hor. Sat._ i, 3, 66. urbem, _Nep. Thras._ 1. abstinere, _Plin. Epp._ i, 12, 9. hostes, _B.G._ i, 1, 4. praedones, _Verr._ iv, 144. dissentio, _Planc._ 9. secernantur, _Cat._ i, 32.

Â§ 215. ab Ulixe, _Liv._ i, 49, 9.

Â§ 216. a fortuna, _B.G._ v, 34, 2. a multitudine, _B.G._ iii, 2, 1.

Â§ 217. melle dulcior, _de Sen._ 31. patria, _Cat._ i, 27. amplius, _B.G._ vii, 15, 1. opinione, _B.G._ ii, 3, 1.

Â§ 218. munere, _Aen._ vi, 885. carne, _Sall. Jug._ 89. castris, _B.G._ ii, 26, 4. opus est properato, _Mil._ 49. nititur, _Aen._ vi, 760 nervis, _N.D._ ii, 59 mortali, _Lucr._ v, 65. quid hoc, _Sest._ 29. quid mea, _Fam._ xiv, 4, 3. fossas, _B.G._ iii, 18. vinum, _Juv._ vii, 121. militibus, _B.G._ i, 8, 1.

Â§ 219. victoria, _B.G._ i, 14, 4. natura loci, _B.G._ iii, 9, 3.

Â§ 221. nulla est, _Brut._ 164. exstinguitur, _Tac. A._ ii, 72. longo, _Aen._ v, 320.

Â§ 222A. cum febri, _de. Or._ iii, 6. improbitas, _de Or._ ii, 237. aer calore, _N.D._ ii, 27. assuetus, _de Or._ iii, 58.

Â§ 224. puella, _Pl. Merc._ 13. vir singulari, _Pl. Vid._ 41. sunt specie, _B.G._ vi, 28, 1. scopulis, _Aen._ i, 166.

Â§ 226. Helvetii, _B.G._ i, 2, 2. me dignor, _Aen._ i, 335.

Â§ 227. Cn. Pompeio, _B.G._ iv, 1. omnes virtutes, _Fin._ ii, 117. perditis, _Fam._ vi, 1, 4. nullo adversante, _Tac. A._ i, 2. passis palmis, _B.C._ iii, 98. audito eum, _Liv._ xxviii, 7.

Â§ 228. stant litore, _Aen._ vi, 901.

Â§ 229. a Gergovia, _B.G._ vii, 59, 1.

Â§ 231. stella, _N.D._ ii, 52. biennio, _Tac. Agr._ 14.

Â§ 234. prima et, _Tac. A._ i, 37. omnium rerum, _Fam._ vi, 21, 1.

Â§ 235. eadem alacritas, _B.G._ iv, 24, 4. res operae, _B.G._ v, 11, 5. stultitia, F. iii, 39. domus, uxor, _Ter. And._ 891. pars, _Sall. Jug._ 14, 15.

Â§ 240. senectus, _de Sen._ 55. exercitus, Livy, xxxix, 1.

Â§ 242. virtus, _Lael._ 100.

Â§ 244. me oravit, _Phil._ ii, 45. me oraverunt, _Div. Caec._ 2. suum genium, _Tac. Dial._ 9. Hannibalem, _Sest._ 142. suus quemque, _Rosc. Am._ 67.

Â§ 245. Belgae, _B.G._ ii, 1, 1. Galli, _B.G._ vi, 8, 1.

Â§ 246. Themistocles, _Nep. Them._ 9. illud intellego, _Sall. Jug._ 85, 5. hic est, _Pl. Tr._ 697.

Â§ 247. Maximum, _de Sen._ 10. non is sum, _B.G._ v, 30, 2. non suspicabatur, _Verr._ i, 36. vincula, _Cat._ iv, 7.

Â§ 248. quod idem, _Ac._ ii, 52. bonus vir, _Lael._ 65.

Â§ 249. ipso terrore, _B.G._ iv, 33, 1. valvae se, _Div._ i, 74. Persae, _Nep. Alc._ 5. ea molestissime, _Q. Fr._ i, 1, 2.

Â§ 250. carcer quae, _Verr._ v, 143. Belgae, _B.G._ ii, 1, 1. nostra qui, _Cat._ i, 7. servili, _B.G._ i, 40. erant, _B.G._ i, 6. quam quisque, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 41. non longe, _B.G._ i, 10, 1. Themistocles, _Nep. Them._ 4. 3. numquam digne, _de Sen._ 2.

Â§ 252. cognatio, _Arch._ 2. mors est, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 27. justitia, F. i, 50. si quisquam, _Lael._ 9. potestne, _Tusc. Disp._ iv, 54. si ullo, _Att._ xii, 23, 1. taetrior, _Verr._ iv, 123. quod cuique, _Off._ i, 21. quinto quoque, _Verr._ ii, 139. nemo Romanus, _Liv._ viii, 30, 3.

Â§ 253. alter exercitum, _Planc._ 86. alteri se, _B.G._ i, 26, 1. causidicus, _de Or._ i, 202.

Â§ 254. Tarquinii, _Liv._ i, 34, 7. non omnis, _Div._ ii, 90. Corioli, _Liv._ ii, 33, 8. duo milia, _Curt._ iii, 2, 5.

Â§ 255. temeritas, F. iii, 72. si tu, _Fam._ xiv, 5, 1.

Â§ 256. velatus, _Ov. Met._ v, 110. tunica, _Aen._ viii, 457.

Â§ 259. virtus, _Lael._ 100. dum vitant, _Hor. Sat._ i, 2, 24. Caesar, _B.G._ vii, 90, 2. jam pridem, _Att._ ii, 5, 1.

Â§ 260. Duilium, _de Sen._ 44. hostes, _B.G._ v. 9, 6. domicilium, _Arch._ 7.

Â§ 262. Regulus, _Off._ iii, 100.

Â§ 263. Caesar, _B.G._ iv, 17, 1.

Â§ 265. nihil habebam, _Att._ ix, 10, 1.

Â§ 268. videor, _N.D._ ii, 72. Gallos, _B.G._ vii, 4, 4. honestum, F. ii, 49. si solos, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 9. rex tantum, _Nep. Con._ 4. Verres, _Verr. Act. Pr._ 12. ardebat, _Brut._ 302.

Â§ 269. Caesar, _B.G._ iii, 24, 1.

Â§ 270. hoc jam, _Cat._ i, 5. dico me, _Sull._ 27.

Â§ 275. quare, _Cat._ 1, 32. isto bono, _de Sen._ 33.

Â§ 276. ne repugnetis, _Cluent._ 6 tu vero, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 112. impii ne, _Leg._ ii, 41. cave ignoscas, _Lig._ 14.

Â§ 277. quid faciam, _Pl. Curc._ 589. ego redeam, _Ter. Eun._ 49. huic cedamus! _Phil._ xiii, 16. quid facerem, _Ter. Eun._ 831. hunc ego, _Arch._ 18.

Â§ 278. ne sint, _de Sen._ 34. fuerit, _Verr._ i, 37.

Â§ 279. di istaec, _Ter. H.T._ 1038. falsus utinam, _Liv._ xxi, 10, 10.

Â§ 280. dicat aliquis, _Ter. And._ 640. fortunam, _Pub. Syr._ 193. velim mihi, _Fam._ xiii, 75, 1. nolim putes, _Fam._ ix, 15, 4. dies deficat, _N.D._ iii, 81.

Â§ 281. egredere, _Cat._ i, 20. rem vobis, _Verr._ iv, 1. si bene, _de Sen._ 3. consules, _Leg._ iii, 8. hominem, _Twelve Tables._ amicitia, _Liv._ 38, 38, 1. quin equos, _Liv._ i, 57, 7.

Â§ 282. adjuta, _Ter. Eun._ 150. portas, _B.G._ ii, 33 haec, _And._ 472. ut ne, _Off._ i, 103. ut non, _Cat._ i, 23. ut earum, _B.G._ iv, 17, 10. Helvetii, _B.G._ i, 7, 3. haec habui, _de Sen._ 85. non habebant, _B.G._ iv, 38, 2. idoneus, _Verr._ iii, 41. dignus, _Leg._ iii, 5.

Â§ 283. multa, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 80. sunt qui, _Inv._ ii, 144. nemo, _Fam._ i, 4, 2. sapientia, _Fin._ i, 43. quae, _Lael._ 23. non is sum, _B.G._ v, 30, 2. non longius, _B.G._ ii, 21, 3. o fortunate, _Arch._ 24. ut qui, _Phil._ xi, 30. egomet, _de Or._ i, 82. nemo est, _Verr._ iv, 115. nemo fuit, _B.C._ iii, 53, 3. quem audierim, _Nep. Ar._ 1, 2.

Â§ 284. quis tam, _Tusc. Disp._ iii, 71. Siciliam, _Verr. Act. Pr._ 12. mons, _B.G._ i, 6, 1. non is, _Cat._ i, 22. nemo est, _de Sen._ 24. habetis, _Cat._ iv, 24. nihil, _Ter. H.T._ 675. nemo est, _B.G._ vi, 39, 3.

Â§ 286. Themistocles, _Nep. Them._ 8, 3. neque, _de Sen._ 84. quoniam, _Nep. Milt._ 7, 5. noctu, _Tusc. Disp._ iv, 44. Bellovaci, _B.G._ vii, 75. id feci, _Caec._ 101. Crasso, _Fam._ xiii, 16, 3. hoc ita, _Leg._ iii, 31. Haeduos, _B.G._ i, 16, 6. id omitto, _Sall. Jug._ 110, 7.

Â§ 287. Epaminondas, _Nep. Ep._ 9, 4. id ut, _Nep. Them._ 8, 3. Caesar, _B.G._ iii, 9, 2. ubi de, _B.G._ i, 7, 3. ut quisque, _Verr._ v, 143. hostes, _B.G._ iv, 26, 2. id ubi, _Liv._ i, 32, 13. postquam occupatae, _Liv._ xxiv, 35, 4. postquam Romam, _Sall. Jug._ 28, 2. postquam structi, _Liv._ i, 23, 6. posteaquam, _Leg._ ii, 64.

Â§ 288. an tum, _Pis._ 26. credo tum, _Verr._ iv, 46. eo tempore, _Lig._ 20. illo die, _Mil._ 38. Lysander, _Div._ i, 96. Pythagoras, _N.D._ iii, 88. jam Galli, _B.G._ vii, 26, 3. Treveri, _B.G._ vi, 7, 1. cum ad, _Verr._ v, 27. cum equitatus, _B.G._ v, 19, 2. saepe cum, _Nep. Cim._ 4, 2. cum procucurrissent, _B.C._ ii, 41, 6.

Â§ 289. tum tua, _Hor. Epp._ i, 18, 84. cum videbis, _Pl. Bacch._ 145. stabilitas, _Lael._ 82.

Â§ 290. cum tacent, _Cat._ i, 21. cum te, _Att._ xiv, 17 A, 4.

Â§ 291. prius, _Pl. Merc._ 456. nihil contra, _Flacc._ 51. non prius, _Sall. C._ 51.

Â§ 291. priusquam, _Liv._ i, 24, 3. tempestas, _Sen. Ep._ 103, 2. priusquam telum, _B.C._ ii, 34, 6. animum, _Pl. Amph._ 240. sol antequam, _Phil._ xiv, 27.

Â§ 293. Alexander, _Quint. Curt._ iv, 6, 17. dum haec, _B.G._ iii, 17, 1. dum anima, _Att._ ix, 10, 3. Lacedaemoniorum, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 101. Cato, _Nep. Cat._ 2, 4. donec, _Liv._ xxiii, 31, 9. ferrum, _Nep. Ep._ 9, 3. trepidationis, _Liv._ xxi, 28, 11. exspectavit, _B.G._ iv, 23, 4. dum litterae, _Fam._ xi, 23, 2.

Â§ 295. postulo, _Ter. And._ 550. orat, _Ter. Ad._ 882. milites, _B.G._ ii, 21, 2. Helvetiis, _B.G._ i, 2, 1. huic, _Rosc. Am._ 54. consuli, _Liv._ xxxv, 20, 4. ne lustrum, _Liv._ xxiv, 43, 4. prohibuit, _Liv._ xxv, 35, 6. nec quin, _Liv._ xxvi, 40, 4. constitueram, _Att._ xvi, 10, 1. decrevit, _Cat._ i, 4. convenit, _Liv._ x, 27, 2. fac ut, _Pl. Rud._ 1218. cura ut, _Cat._ iii, 12. laborabat, _B.G._ vii, 31, 1. sequitur, _N.D._ ii, 81. eos moneo, _Cat._ ii, 20. huic imperat, _B.G._ iv, 21, 8.

Â§ 296. opto, _Verr. Act. Pr._ 50. vereor ne, _Att._ vii, 12, 2.

Â§ 297. ex quo, F. ii, 24. ita fit, _Tusc. Disp._ ii, 16. est mos, _Brut._ 84.

Â§ 298. quis, _Par._ 48.

Â§ 299. illud, _Off._ iii, 111. hoc uno, _de Or._ i, 32. bene mihi, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 97. quod, _B.G._ i, 44, 6. quod me, _Nep. Ep._ 5, 6.

Â§ 300. oculis, _B.G._ i, 12, 1. bis bina, _N.D._ ii, 49. effugere, _N.D._ iii, 14. saepe autem, _N.D._ iii, 14. Epaminondas, F. ii, 97. ex Socrate, _Tusc. Disp._ v, 34. nescio, _Pl. Amph._ 1056. conantur, _B.G._ i, 8, 4. pergit, _Liv._ i, 7, 6, quaeritur, _N.D._ i, 61. haud scio, _Tusc. Disp._ ii, 41.

Â§ 302. naturam, _Off._ i, 100. memoria, _de Sen._ 21. si quis, _B.G._ i, 48, 6. si dicendo, _Tac. Dial._ 19.

Â§ 303. mentiar, _Lael._ 10. haec si, _Cat._ i, 19.

Â§ 304. sapientia, F. i, 42. consilium, _de Sen._ 19. Laelius, _Arch._ 16. num igitur, _de Sen._ 19. nisi felicitas, _Tac. Agr._ 31. eum patris, _Phil._ ii, 99. si Sestius, _Sest._ 81. si unum, _Liv._ ii, 38, 5.

Â§ 305. non potestis, F. ii, 71. cras, _Pl. Merc._ 770. haec reputent, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 51. roges, F. iv, 69.

Â§ 306. ferreus, _Fam._ xv, 21, 3. dolorem, _Phil._ 12, 21. si feceris, _Fam._ v, 19, 2. hoc si, _Fam._ vii, 1, 6. hunc mihi, _Cat._ i, 18. nihil, _Cat._ ii, 10. nisi, _Mil._ 19.

Â§ 307. sed quid, _Div. Caec._ 14. serviam, _Pl. Men._ 1101.

Â§ 308. sit fur, _Verr._ v, 4. haec sint, _Ac._ ii, 105. ne sit, _Tusc. Disp._ ii, 14.

Â§ 309. homines, _Phil._ ii, 39. non est, _Rep._ i, 10. quamquam, _Off._ i, 56. Caesar, _B.G._ iv, 31, 1. Atticus, _Nep. Att._ 6, 2. licet, _Rosc. Am._ 31. quamquam quid, _Cat._ i, 22. quamquam, _Liv._ xxxvi, 34, 6. quamvis, multi, _Tac. Dial._ 2. quamvis infesto, _Liv._ ii, 40, 7.

Â§ 310. multi, _Off._ iii, 82. omnia postposui, _Fam._ xvi, 21, 6. nil obstat, _Hor. Sat._ i, 1, 40. oderint, _Acc._ 204. manent, _de Sen._ 22. nubant, _Pl. Aul._ 491.

Â§ 312. quidquid, _Aen._ ii, 49. quidquid oritur, _Div._ ii, 60.

Â§ 314. Regulus, _Off._ iii, 100. tum Romulus, _Liv._ i, 9, 2. nuntiatum, _B.G._ i, 38, 1. dixit, _Nep. Them._ 7, 5.

Â§ 315. Ariovistus, _B.G._ i, 44, 7.

Â§ 316. milites, _B.G._ iii, 5, 3.

Â§ 318. Caesar, _B.G._ i, 14, 6.

Â§ 322. concursu, _Tac. Dial._ 39.

Â§ 323. demonstrabantur, _de Sen._ 78. Paetus, _Att._ ii, 1, 12.

Â§ 324. nemo, _Par._ 52. cum diversas, _Tac. Dial._ 1, 4. mos est, _Orat._ 151. quod ego, _Pl. Capt._ 961.

Â§ 327. dulce, _Hor. Od._ iii, 2, 13. virorum, _Tusc. Disp._ ii, 43. aliud est, _Tusc. Disp._ iv, 27. impune, _Sall. Jug._ 31, 26. licuit, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 33.

Â§ 328. Demosthenes, F. v, 5. beatus, _N.D._ i, 48. Cato, _Sall. Cat._ 54, 5.

Â§ 330. apertum est, F. v, 34.

Â§ 331. Epicurei, _Lael._ 13. Thales, _N.D._ i, 25. Democritus, _N.D._ i, 20. nullo se, _Lig._ 3. nec mihi, _de Sen._ 85. eas res, _B.G._ i, 18. te tua, _Brut._ 331. cupio, _Cat._ i, 4. Timoleon, _Nep. Tim._ 3, 4. gaudeo, _Pl. Bacch._ 456. non moleste, _de Sen._ 7.

Â§ 332. Sestius, _Sest._ 95. traditum, _Tusc. Disp._ v, 114.

Â§ 333. audax, _Hor. Od._ i, 3, 25.

Â§ 334. huncine, _Hor. Sat._ i, 9, 72.

Â§ 335. interim, _B.G._ i, 16, 1.

Â§ 336. assurgentem, _Liv._ iv, 19.

Â§ 337. gloria, _Tusc. Disp._ iii, 3. Conon, _Nep. Con._ 4, 5. omne, _Phil._ v, 31. mente, _Tusc. Disp._ v, 100. Solon, _de Sen._ 26. sol, _N.D._ ii, 102. mendaci, _Div._ ii, 146. perfidiam, _B.G._ vii, 5, 5. eis Catonem, _de Sen._ 3. Homerus, _de Sen._ 54. urbem, _Liv._ xxii, 20. equitatum, _B.G._ i, 15, 1. obliviscendum, _Tac. Hist._ ii, 1. numquam, _Verr._ i, 38. suo cuique, _N.D._ iii, 1. Caesar, _B.G._ i, 13, 1.

Â§ 338. scribendo, _Fam._ xv, 6, 2. mens, _Off._ i, 105. Themistocles, _Nep. Them._ 2, 3. multa, F. i, 5.

Â§ 339. ad pacem, _Liv._ xxi, 13. hostes, _B.G._ iii, 6, 2. legati, _B.G._ iv, 13, 5. quae ille, _Sall. Fr._ i, 77, 11.

Â§ 340. legati, _B.G._ i, 30, 1. do (colloco), _Pl. Tr._ 735. hoc est, _Att._ vii, 22, 2.

Â§ 341. cum homines, _Cat._ i, 31. discidia, F. i, 44. horae, _de Sen._ 69. Caesar, _B.G._ ii, 35, 3.

Â§ 342. cita, _Hor. Sat._ i, 1, 8. qui aether, _N.D._ ii, 41.

Â§ 343. adsentatio, _Lael._ 89.

Â§ 346. Cn. Pompeio, _B.G._ iv, 1, 1.

Â§ 348. Darius, _Nep. Milt._ 4, 1.

Â§ 349. magnus, _Nep. Them._ 6, 1.

Â§ 350. erant duo, _B.G._ i, 6, 1. nisi forte, _de Sen._ 18. id ut, _Nep. Them._ 8, 3. eo cum, _B.G._ vii, 7, 4. ut ad, _Lael._ 5. septimus, _de Sen._ 38. recepto, _B.C._ iii, 12, 1. sed pleni, _Arch._ 14. horribilem, _Tusc. Disp._ i, 118. simulatam, _Tac. A._ i, 10.

Â§ 351. Caesar, _B.G._ i, 25, 1. Haedui, _B.G._ i, 11, 2. Caesar cum, _B.G._ i, 7, 1. accidit, _Nep. Alc._ 3, 2. si quid, _Arch._ 1. Caesar, _B.G._ v, 4, 1.

Â§ 356. hostium, _B.G._ iii, 29, 3. mens quoque, _de Sen._ 36. tanto, _Sull._ 59.

Â§ 358. pro multitudine, _B.G._ i, 2, 5.

Â§ 374. ut ager, _Tusc. Disp._ ii, 13. minis, _Tusc. Disp._ v, 87. dissimilis, _Nep. Chab._ 3, 4. febris, _Cat._ i, 31. submersas, _Aen._ i, 69. nosti, _Fam._ viii, 10, 3. tum Anci, _Liv._ i, 40, 2. moriamur, _Aen._ ii, 353.

Â§ 375. quadrupedante, _Aen._ viii, 506.

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN INDEX TO THE ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

Ac., Cicero, Academica. Acc., Accius. ad Her., ad Herennium. Aen., Virgil, Aeneid. Arch., Cicero, pro Archia. Att., Cicero, Epistulae ad Atticus. B.C., Caesar, de Bello Civili. B.G., Caesar, de Bello Gallico. Brut., Cicero, Brutus. Caec., Cicero, pro Caecina. Cat., Cicero, in Catilinam. Cluent., Cicero, pro Cluentio. Curt., Quintus Curtius de Dom., Cicero, de Domo Sua. de Or., Cicero, de Oratore. de Sen., Cicero, de Senectute. D., Cicero, de Divinatione. Div. Caec., Cicero, Divinatio in Caecilium. Ecl., Virgil, Eclogues. Eut., Eutropius. F., Cicero, de Finibus. Fam., Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares. Flac., Cicero, pro Flacco. Gell, Aulus Gellius. Hor., Horace. ---- Epp., Epistles. ---- Od., Odes. ---- Sat., Satires. Inv., Cicero, de Inventione. Juv., Juvenal. Lael., Cicero, _Laelius, de Amicitia_. Leg., Cicero, de Legibus. Lig., Cicero, pro Ligario. Liv., Livy. Lucr., Lucretius. Marc., Cicero, pro Marcello. Mil., Cicero, pro Milone. N.D., Cicero, de Natura Deorum. Nep., Nepos. ---- Alc., Alcibiades. ---- Ar., Aristides. ---- Att., Atticus. ---- Cat., Cato. ---- Chab. Chabrias. ---- Cim., Cimon. ---- Con., Conon. ---- Dat., Datames. ---- Ep., Epaminondas. ---- Milt., Miltiades. ---- Paus., Pausanias. ---- Them., Themistocles. ---- Thras., Thrasybulus. ---- Tim., Timoleon. Off., Cicero, de Officiis. Or., Cicero, Orator. Ov., Ovid. ---- Am., Amores, ---- Met., Metamorphoses. Par., Cicero, Paradoxa. Phil., Cicero, Philippics. Pis., Cicero, in Pisonem. Planc., Cicero, pro Plancio. Pl., Plautus. ---- Amph., Amphitruo. ---- Aul., Aulularia. ---- Bacch., Bacchides. ---- Capt., Captivi. ---- Curc., Curculio. ---- Men., Menaechmi. ---- Merc., Mercator. ---- M.G., Miles Gloriosus. ---- Pers., Persa. ---- Poen., Poenulus. ---- Rud., Rudens. ---- Tr., Trinummus. ---- Vid., Vidularia. Plin. Epp., Pliny the Younger, Letters. Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus. Q.F., Cicero, ad Quintum Fratrem. Rosc. Am., Cicero, pro Roscio Amerino. Sall., Sallust. ---- C., Catiline. ---- Fr., Fragments. ---- Jug., Jugurtha. Sen., Seneca. ---- Ep., Epistles. ---- N.Q., Naturales Quaestiones. Sest., Cicero, pro Sestio. Sex. Rosc., Cicero, pro Sexto Roscio. Sil., Silius Italicus. Stat., Caecilius Statius. Sull., Cicero, pro Sulla. Tac., Tacitus. ---- A., Annals. ---- Agr., Agricola. ---- Dial., Dialogus de Oratoribus. ---- Ger., Germania. ---- H., Histories. Ter., Terence. ---- Ad., Adelphoi. ---- And., Andria. ---- Eun., Eunuchus. ---- Hec., Hecyra. ---- H.T., Hautontimoroumenos. ---- Phor., Phormio. Tusc. Disp., Cicero, Tusculan Disputations. Twelve Tables, Laws of the Twelve Tables. Vatin., Cicero, in Vatinium. Verr., Cicero, in Verrem. Verr. Act. Pr., Cicero, _Actio Prima in C. Verrem_.

* * * * *

INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS

NOTE.--Compounds are not given unless they present some special irregularity. The references are to sections.

A.

abdÅ, 122, I, 4. abiciÅ, 122, III. abnuÅ, 122, II. aboleÅ, 121, I. abstergeÅ, 121, III absum, 125. accendÅ, 122, I, 4. accidit, 138, III. acciÅ, 121, I, N. accipiÅ, 122, III. acquÄ«rÅ, 122, I, 6. acuÅ, 122, II. addÅ, 122, I, 2. adhaerÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 2. adipÄ«scor, 122, V. adolÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 1. adsum, 125. adveniÅ, 123, IV. afferÅ, 129. afficiÅ, 122, III. afflÄ«gÅ, 122, I, 1, a. agnÅscÅ, 122, IV, 1. agÅ, 122, I, 3. algeÅ, 121, III. alÅ, 122, I, 5. amiciÅ, 123, III. amÅ, 120, I. amplector, 122, V. angÅ, 122, I, 7. aperiÅ, 123, II. appetÅ, 122, I, 6. arceÅ, 121, II, a. arcessÅ, 122, I, 6. ÄrdeÅ, 121, III. ÄrÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 2. arguÅ, 122, II. ascendÅ, 122, I, 4. aspiciÅ, 122, III. assentior, 123, VII. assuÄ“faciÅ, 122, III. assuÄ“fÄ«Å, 122, III. audiÅ, 123, I. auferÅ, 129. augeÅ, 121, III. aveÅ, 121, II, a, N. 2.

C.

cadÅ, 122, I, 2. caedÅ, 122, I, 2. calefaciÅ, 122, III. calefiÅ, 122, III. caleÅ, 121, II, a. calÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 2. canÅ, 122, I, 2. capessÅ, 122, I, 6. capiÅ, 122, III. careÅ, 121, II, a. carpÅ, 121, I, 1, a. caveÅ, 121, V. cÄ“dÅ, 122, I, 1, b. cÄ“nseÅ, 121, II, b. cernÅ, 122, I, 6. cieÅ, 121, I. cingÅ, 122, I, 1, a. circumsistÅ, 122, I, 2. claudÅ, 122, I, 1, b. claudÅ, 122, I, 7. coÃ«mÅ, 122, I, 3. coepÄ«, 133. coÃ«rceÅ, 121, II, a. cognÅscÅ, 122, IV, 1. cÅgÅ, 122, I, 3. colligÅ, 122, I, 3. colÅ, 122, I, 5. comminÄ«scor, 122, V. comperiÅ, 123, V. compleÅ, 121, I. concutiÅ, 122, III. condÅ, 122, I, 2. cÅnferÅ, 129. cÅnfiteor, 121, VII. congruÅ, 122, II. cÅnsenÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 2. cÅnserÅ, 122, I, 5. cÅnserÅ, 122, I, 6 (_plant_). cÅnsidÅ, 122, I, 4. cÅnsistÅ, 122, I, 2. cÅnspiciÅ, 122, III. cÅnstat, 138, III. cÅnstituÅ, 122, II. cÅnsuÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 1. cÅnsulÅ, 122, I, 5. contineÅ, 121, II, b. contingit, 138, III. coquÅ, 122, I, 1, a. crepÅ, 120, II. crÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 1. cubÅ, 120, II. cupiÅ, 122, III. currÅ, 122, I, 2.

D.

dÄ“beÅ, 121, II, a. dÄ“cernÅ, 122, I, 6. decet, 138, II. dÄ“decet, 138, II. dÄ“dÅ, 122, I, 2. dÄ“fendÅ, 122, I, 4. dÄ“lÄ“o, 121, I dÄ“ligÅ, 122, I, 3. dÄ“mÅ, 122, I, 3. dÄ“sÄ“rÅ, 122, I, 5 dÄ“sinÅ, 122, I, 6. dÄ“sum, 125. dÄ«cÅ, 122, I, 1, a. differÅ, 129. dÄ«ligÅ, 122, I, 3. dÄ«micÅ, 120, II. dirimÅ, 122, I, 3. dÄ«ripiÅ, 122, III. dÄ«ruÅ, 122, II. discernÅ, 122, I, 6. discÅ, 122, IV, 1. disserÅ, 122, I, 5. distinguÅ, 122, I, 1, a., footnote 44. dÄ«vidÅ, 122, I, 1, b. dÅ, 127. doceÅ, 121, II, b. doleÅ, 121, II, a. domÅ, 120, II. dÅ«cÅ, 122, I, 1, a.

E.

Ä“dÅ, 122, I, 2. edÅ, 122, I, 3. efferÅ, 129. effugiÅ, 122, III. egeÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. Ä“liciÅ, 122, III. Ä“mineÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. emÅ, 122, I, 3. eÅ, 132. Ä“suriÅ, 123, VI. Ä“vÄdÅ, 122, I, 1, b., footnote 45. Ä“vÄnÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 3. excolÅ, 122, I, 5. excÅ«dÅ, 122, I, 4. exerceÅ, 121, II, a. experior, 123, VII. expleÅ, 121, I, N. explicÅ, 120, II. exstinguÅ, 122, I, 1, a., footnote 44. extimÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 2.

F.

faciÅ, 122, III. fallÅ, 122, I, 2. fateor, 121, VII. faveÅ, 121, V. feriÅ, 123, VI. ferÅ, 129. ferveÅ, 121, VI fÄ«gÅ, 122, I, 1, b. findÅ,122, I, 2, N. fingÅ, 122, I, 1, a. fiÅ, 131. flectÅ, 122, I, 1, b. fleÅ, 121, I. flÅreÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. flÅrÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 2. fluÅ, 122, II. fodiÅ, 122, III. foveÅ, 121, V. frangÅ, 122, I, 3. fremÅ, 122, I, 5. fricÅ, 120, II. frÄ«geÅ, 121, II, a, N. 2. fruor, 122, V. fugiÅ, 122, III. fulciÅ, 123, III. fulgeÅ, 121, III. fulget, 138, I. fundÅ, 122, I, 3. fungor, 122, V. furÅ, 122, I, 7.

G.

gemÅ, 122, I, 5. gerÅ, 122, I, 1, a. gignÅ, 122, I, 5. gradior, 122, V.

H.

habeÅ, 121, II, a. haereÅ, 121, III. hauriÅ, 123, III. horreÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1.

I.

ignÅscÅ, 121, IV, 2. illiciÅ, 122, III. imbuÅ, 122, II. immineÅ, 121, II, a, N. 2. impleÅ, 121, I, N. implicÅ, 120, II. incipiÅ, 122, III. incolÅ, 122, I, 5. incumbÅ, 122, I, 5. indulgeÅ, 121, III. induÅ, 122, II. Ä«nferÅ, 129. ingemÄ«scÅ, 122, IV, 2. Ä«nsum, 125. intellegÅ, 122, I, 3. interficiÅ, 122, III. intersum, 125. invÄdÅ, 122, I, 1, b., footnote 45. inveniÅ, 123, IV. Ä«rÄscor, 122, V.

J.

jaceÅ, 121, II, a. jaciÅ, 122, III. jubeÅ, 121, III. jungÅ, 122, I, 1, a. juvÅ, 120, III.

L.

lÄbor, 122, V. lacessÅ, 122, I, 6. laedÅ, 122, I, 1, b. lambÅ, 122, I, 7. largior, 123, VII. lateÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. lavÅ, 120, III. legÅ, 122, I, 3. libet, 138, II. liceor, 121, VII. licet, 138, II. loquor, 122, V. lÅ«ceo, 121, III. lÅ«dÅ, 122, I, 1, b. lÅ«geÅ, 121, III. luÅ, 122, II.

M.

maereÅ, 121, II, a, N. 2. mÄlÅ, 130. maneÅ, 121, III. mÄtÅ«rÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 3. medeor, 121, VII. meminÄ«, 133. mereÅ, 121, II, a. mereor, 121, VII. mergÅ, 122, I, 1, b. mÄ“tior, 123, VII. metuÅ, 122, II. micÅ, 120, II. minuÅ, 122, II. misceÅ, 121, II, b. miseret, 138, II. misereor, 121, VII. mittÅ, 122, I, 1, b. molÅ, 122, I, 5. moneÅ, 121, II, a. mordeÅ, 121, IV. morior, 122, V. moveÅ, 121, V.

N.

nancÄ«scor, 122, V. nÄscor, 122, V. nectÅ, 122, I, 1, b. neglegÅ, 122, I, 3. ningit, 138, . niteÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. nÄ«tor, 122, V. noceÅ, 121, II, a. nÅlÅ, 130. nÅscÅ, 122, IV, 1. nÅ«bÅ, 122, I, 1, a.

O.

obdÅ«rÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 3. oblinÅ, 122, I, 6. oblÄ«vÄ«scor, 122, V. obmÅ«tÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 3. obruÅ, 122, II. obsolÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 1. obsum, 125. obtineÅ, 121, II, b. ÅdÄ«, 133. offerÅ, 129. oleÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. operiÅ, 123, II. oportet, 138, II. opperior, 123, VII. Årdior, 123, VII. orior, 123, VII.

P.

paenitet, 138, II. palleÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. pandÅ, 122, I, 4. parcÅ, 122, I, 2. pÄreÅ, 121, II, a. pariÅ, 122, III. pÄscÅ, 122, IV, 1. pÄscor, 122, IV, 1. patefaciÅ, 122, III. patefÄ«Å, 122, III. pateÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. patior, 122, V. paveÅ, 121, V. pelliciÅ, 122, III. pellÅ, 122, I, 2. pendeÅ, 121, IV. pendÅ, 122, I, 2. peragÅ, 122, I, 3. percellÅ, 122, I, 2, N. percrÄ“brÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 3. perdÅ, 122, I, 2. perficiÅ, 122, III. perfringÅ, 122, I, 3. perfruor, 122, V. perlegÅ, 122, I, 3. permulceÅ, 121, III. perpetior, 122, V. pervÄdÅ, 122, I, 1, b., footnote 45. petÅ, 122, I, 6. piget, 138, II. pingÅ, 122, I, 1, a. placeÅ, 121, II, a. plaudÅ, 122, I, 1, b. pluit, 138, I. polleÅ, 121, II, a, N. 2. polliceor, 121, VII. polluÅ, 122, II. pÅnÅ, 122, I, 6. poscÅ, 122, IV, 1. possÄ«dÅ, 122, I, 4. possum, 126. pÅtÅ, 120, I. praebeÅ, 121, II, a. praestat, 138, III. praesum, 125. prandeÅ, 121, VI. prehendÅ, 122, I, 4. premÅ, 122, I, 1, b. prÅdÅ, 122, I, 2. prÅmÅ, 122, I, 3. prÅsum, 125. prÅsternÅ, 122, I, 6. pudet, 138, II. pungÅ, 122, I, 2.

Q.

quaerÅ, 122, I, 6. quatiÅ, 122, III. queror, 122, V. quiÄ“scÅ, 122, IV, 1.

R.

rÄdÅ, 122, I, 1, b. rapiÅ, 122, III. reddÅ, 122, I, 2. redimÅ, 122, I, 3. referciÅ, 123, III. referÅ, 129. rÄ“fert, 138, II. regÅ, 122, I, 1, a. relinquÅ, 122, I, 3. reminÄ«scor, 122, V. reor, 121, VII. reperiÅ, 123, V. rÄ“pÅ, 122, I, 1, a. resistÅ, 122, I, 2. respuÅ, 122, II. restinguÅ, 122, I, 1, a., footnote 44. retineÅ, 121, II, b. rÄ«deÅ, 121, III. rÅdÅ, 122, I, 1, b. rubeÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. rumpÅ, 122, I, 3. ruÅ, 122, II.

S.

saepiÅ, 123, III. saliÅ, 123, II. sanciÅ, 123, III. sapiÅ, 122, III. sarciÅ, 123, III. scindÅ, 122, I, 2, N. scÄ«scÅ, 122, IV, 2. scribÅ, 122, I, 1, a. sculpÅ, 122, I, 1, a. secÅ, 120, II. sedeÅ, 121, V. sentiÅ, 123, III. sepeliÅ, 123, I. sequor, 122, V. serÅ, 122, I, 6. serpÅ, 122, I, 1, a. sileÅ, 121, II, a, N. sinÅ, 122, I, 6. solvÅ, 122, I, 4. sonÅ, 120, II. spargÅ, 122, I, 1, b. spernÅ, 122, I, 6. splendeÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. spondeÅ, 121, IV. statuÅ, 122, II. sternÅ, 122, I, 6. -stinguÅ, 122, I, 1, a. stÅ, 120, IV. strepÅ, 122, I, 5. strÄ«deÅ, 121, VI. stringÅ, 122, I, 1, a. struÅ, 122, II. studeÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. suÄdeÅ, 121, III. subigÅ, 122, I, 3. subsum, 125. sum, 100. sÅ«mÅ, 122, I, 3. suÅ, 122, II. supersum, 125. sustineÅ, 121, II, b.

T.

taceÅ, 121, II, a. taedet, 138, II. tangÅ, 122, I, 2. tegÅ, 122, I, 1, a. temnÅ, 122, I, 1, a. tendÅ, 122, I, 2. teneÅ, 121, II, b. terÅ, 122, I, 6. terreÅ, 121, II, a. texÅ, 122, I, 5. timeÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. tingÅ, 122, I, 1, a. tollÅ, 122, I, 2, N. tonat, 138, I. tondeÅ, 121, IV. tonÅ, 120, II. torpeÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. torqueÅ, 121, III. torreÅ, 121, II, b. trÄdÅ, 122, I, 2. trahÅ, 122, I, 1, a. tremÅ, 122, I, 5. tribuÅ, 122, II. trÅ«dÅ, 122, I, 1, b. tueor, 121, VII. tundÅ, 122, I, 2.

U.

ulcÄ«scor, 122, V. unguÅ, 122, I, 1, a. urgeÅ, 121, III. Å«rÅ, 122, I, 1, a. Å«tor, 122, V.

V.

vÄdÅ, 122, I, 1, b. valeÅ, 121, II, a. vehÅ, 122, I, 1, a. vellÅ, 122, I, 4. veniÅ, 123, IV. vereor, 121, VII. vergÅ, 122, I, 7. verrÅ, 122, I, 4. vertÅ, 122, I, 4. vescor, 122, V. vetÅ, 120, II. videÅ, 121, V. vigeÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. vinciÅ, 123, III. vincÅ, 122, I, 3. vireÅ, 121, II, a, N. 1. vÄ«sÅ, 122, I, 4. vÄ«vÅ, 122, I, 1, a. volÅ, 130. volvÅ, 122, I, 4. vomÅ, 122, I, 5. voveÅ, 121, V.

* * * * *

GENERAL INDEX.

* * * * *

The references are to sections and paragraphs.

* * * * *

ABBREVIATIONS.--Abl., ablative; acc., accusative; adj., adjective; adv., adverb, adverbial, or adverbially; cf., compare; comp., comparison or comparative; conj., conjunction or conjugation; const., constr., construction; dat., dative; decl., declension; gen., genitive; ind., indicative; indir. disc., indirect discourse; loc., locative; N., note; nom., nominative; plu., plural; prep., preposition; pron., pronoun or pronunciation; sing., singular; subj., subject; subjv., subjunctive; voc., vocative; w., with.

A.

Äƒ, vowel, 2, 1; ---- pronunciation, 3, 1; ---- development of Äƒ, before a single consonant, 7, 1, a; ---- before two consonants, 7, 1, b; ---- Äƒ as ending of nom. sing. of 1st decl., 20; ---- in voc. sing. of Greek nouns in -Ä“s of 1st decl., 22; ---- in nom. sing. of Greek nouns in -Ä“ of 1st decl., 22, 3; ---- termination of nom. and acc. plu. of neuters, 23; 35; 48; ---- termination of nom. sing. of nouns of 3d decl., 28; ---- gender of nouns in -Äƒ of 3d decl., 43, 3; ---- ending of acc. sing. of Greek nouns of 3d decl., 47, 1; ---- regular quantity of final a, 363, 1; ---- exceptions to quantity of final a, 363, 1, a-c. Ä, pronunciation, 3, 1; ---- arising by contraction, 7, 2; ---- as ending of stem in 1st decl., 18; ---- Ä-stems inflected, 20; ---- in voc. sing. of Greek nouns of 1st decl., 22; ---- in voc. sing. of Greek nouns in -Äs of 3d decl., 47, 4; ---- distinguishing vowel of 1st conjugation, 98; ---- ending of imperative act. of 1st conj., 101; ---- final a long by exception, 363, 1, a-c. Ä, ab, abs, use, 142, 1; ---- with town names, 229, 2. Ä to denote agency, 216. ---- to denote separation, 214. ---- place from which, 229. ---- with town names, 229, 2. ---- with abl. of gerund, 338, 4, b. Ä-stems, 20; 98; 101. Abbreviations of proper names, 373. Ablative case, 17; 213 f. ---- in -Äbus, 21, 2, e. ---- in -d in prons., 84, 3; 85, 3. ---- formation of sing. of adjs. of 3d decl., 67, a; 70, 1-5. ---- of Ä-stems, 37; 38. ---- genuine abl. uses, 214 f. ---- absolute, 227. ---- of agent, 216. ---- of accompaniment, 222. ---- of accordance, 220, 3. ---- of association, 222A. ---- of attendant circumstance, 221; 227, 2, e). ---- of cause, 219. ---- of comparison, 217. ---- of degree of difference, 223. ---- of fine or penalty, 208, 2, b. ---- of manner, 220. ---- of material, 224, 3. ---- of means, 218. ---- of penalty, 208, 2, b. ---- of place where, 228. ---- of place whence, 229. ---- of price, 225. ---- of quality, 224. ---- of separation, 214; ---- ---- with compounds of dis- and sÄ“-, 214, 3. ---- of source, 215. ---- of specification, 226. ---- of time at which, 230. ---- of time during which, 231, 1. ---- of time within which, 231. ---- of way by which, 213, 9. ---- with continÄ“ri, cÅnsistere, cÅnstÄre, 218, 4. ---- with special phrases, 218, 7. ---- with jungere, mÄ«scÄ“re, mÅ«tÄre, etc., 222A. ---- with faciÅ, fiÅ, 218, 6 ---- with prepositions, 142; 213 f. ---- with verbs of filling, 218, 8. ---- with verbs and adjs. of freeing, 214, I, a, and N. 1. ---- with adjs. of plenty, 218, 8. ---- with Å«tor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, 218, 1. ---- with opus and Å«sus, 218, 2 ---- with nÄ«tor, innÄ«xus, and frÄ“tus, 218, 3. abs, 142, 1. absÄ“ns, 125. Absolute, ablative, 227. ---- time, of participles, 336, 4. ---- use of verbs, 174, a. Abstract nouns, 12, 2, b); ---- plural of, 55, 4, c). -Äbus, 21, 2, e). ac, 341, 2, b); ---- = as, than, 341, 1, c). Acatalectic verses, 366, 9. accÄ“dit ut, 297, 2. Accent, 6; ---- in gen. of nouns in -ius and -ium, 25, 1 and 2. accidit ut, 297, 2. accidit quod, 299, 1, b. Accompaniment, abl. of, 222. Accordance, abl. of, 220, 3. Accusative case, 17; ---- in -Än and -Ä“n of Greek nouns, 22; ---- in -om in 2d decl., 24; ---- in -on and -Ån in Greek nouns, 27; ---- in -Äƒ in sing. of Greek nouns, 47, 1; ---- in -Äƒs in plu., 47, 3; ---- in -im and -is in i-stems, 37; 38; ---- acc. sing. neut. as adv., 77, 3; 176, 3; 172 f. ---- of duration of time, 181. ---- of result produced, 173, B; 176. ---- of extent of space, 181. ---- of limit of motion, 182 f. ---- of neut. prons. or adjs., 176, 2. ---- of person or thing affected, 173, A; 175. ---- in exclamations, 183. ---- as subj. of inf., 184. ---- with admoneÅ, commoneÅ, etc., 207. ---- with adv. force, 176, 3. ---- with compounds, 175, 2. ---- with impersonal verbs, 175, 2, c. ---- with intransitive verbs, 175, 2, a. ---- with passive used as middle, 175, 2, d). ---- with verbs of remembering and forgetting (meminÄ«, oblÄ«vÄ«scor, reminÄ«scor), 206, 1; 2. ---- with verbs expressing emotion, 175, 2, b. ---- with verbs of tasting and smelling, 176, 5. ---- with verbs of making, choosing, calling, regarding, etc., 177. ---- with verbs of asking, requesting, demanding, teaching, concealing, 178, 1-5. ---- with adjs. (propior, proximus), 141, 3. ---- with adverbs (propius, proximÄ“), 141, 3; ---- ---- clam, prÄ«diÄ“, 144, 2. ---- Genavam ad oppidum, 182, 2, a. ---- cognate acc., 176, 4. ---- Greek acc., 180. ---- synecdochical acc., 180. ---- two accs., direct obj. and pred. acc., 177; ---- ---- person affected and result produced, 178; ---- ---- with compounds of trÄns, 179; ---- ---- with other compounds, 179, 2. ---- with prepositions, 141; 179 f. ---- retained in pass., 178, 2. Accusing, verbs of, constr., 208 f. accÅ«sÅ, constr., 178, 1, d). Äcer, decl., 68; ---- compared, 71, 3. Acquitting, verbs of, constr., 208 f. ac sÄ« with subjv., 307, 1. ad, 'toward,' 'in vicinity of,' 182, 3; ---- with acc. alternating with dat., 358, 2. ---- compounds of ad governing dat., 187, III; 188, 2, d. ---- with gerund denoting purpose, 338, 3. -adÄ“s, patronymic ending, 148, 6, a. adg- = agg-, 9, 2. Adjectives, 62 f; 354; ---- derivation of, 150 f. ---- of 1st and 2d decl., 63 ff. ---- in -ius, gen. sing., 63, a. ---- of 3d decl., 67, ff; ---- ---- in abl., 70, 5. ---- comparison of adjs., 71 f.; ---- ---- in -er, 71, 3; ---- ---- in -ilis, 71, 4; ---- ---- comparative lacking, 73, 3; ---- ---- defective comparison, 73; ---- ---- not admitting comparison, 75; ---- ---- comparison by magis and maximÄ“, 74. ---- numerals, 78 f. ---- syntax, 233 ff.; ---- ---- attributive and predicate adjs., 233, 2. ---- agreement, 234, f. ---- used substantively, 236 f. ---- denoting part of an object, 241, 1. ---- with force of adverbs, 239. ---- force of comp. and superl., 240, 1. ---- not followed by infinitive, 333. ---- not used with proper names, 354, 3. ---- equivalent to a poss. gen., 354, 4. ---- special Latin equivalents of Eng. adjs., 354, 1. ---- equiv. to rel. clause, 241, 2. ---- as pred. acc., 177, 2. ---- position of adj., 350, 4. ---- pronominal adjs., 92. ---- governing gen., 204. ---- governing dat., 192. ---- governing acc., 141, 3. ---- construed with abl., 214, 1, d; 217, 1; 218, 8; 223; 226, 2; 227, 1. ---- with supine in -Å«, 340, 2. adl- = all-, 9, 2. admoneÅ, constr., 207. Admonishing, const. of verbs of, 207. adr- = arr-, 9, 2. ads- = ass-, 9, 2. ad sensum, constr., 235, B, 2, c; 254, 4. adulÄ“scÄ“ns, spelling, 9, 2. adulter, decl., 23, 2. adultus, force, 114, 2. Adverbs, defined, 140; ---- formation and comparison, 76 f.; 140; 157. ---- in -iter from adjs. in -us, 77, 4. ---- in -tus and -tim, 77, 5. ---- in Å and -o, 77, 2. ---- numeral, 79. ---- as preps., 144, 2. ---- derivation of, 157. ---- with gen., 201, 2; 3; and a. ---- special meanings, 347. ---- position, 350, 6. Adversative clauses, 309. ---- conjunctions, 343. adversus, prep. with acc., 141. ae, how pronounced, 3, 2; ---- phonetic changes, 7, 1, d. aedÄ“s, plu., 61. aequÄlis, abl. sing. of, 70, 5, a; ---- as subst., 238. aequor, decl., 34. aequum est = aequum sit, 271, 1, b). aes, in plu., 55, 4, b; ---- lacks gen. plu., 57, 7. aetÄs, decl., 40, 1, e); ---- id aetÄtis, 185, 2. -aeus, suffix, 152, 3. aevom, decl., 24. Affected, acc. of person or thing, 175. Agency, dat. of, 189; ---- abl., 216. Agent, abl., 216; ---- with names of animals, 216, 2. ager, decl., 23. Agreement, nouns, 166; 168; 169, 2; 3; 4. ---- adjs., 234; ---- ---- in gender, 235, B; ---- ---- in number, 235, A; ---- prons., 250; ---- verbs, with one subj., 254, 1; ---- ---- with two or more subjs., 255, 1. -ÄÄ«, case-ending, gen. sing., 1st decl., poet., 21, 2, b). aÄ«n, 135, N. ajÅ, 135; ---- quantity of first syllable, 362, 5. -al, declension of nouns in, 39. alacer, decl., 68, 1; ---- comp., 73, 4. aliqua, 91, 2. aliquÄ«, 91; 91, 2. aliquis, 91; 252, 2; ---- aliquis dÄ«cat, dÄ«xerit, 280, 1. -Älis, suffix, 151, 2. aliter ac, 341, 1, c. alius, 66; 92, 1; ---- used correlatively, 253, 1. alius ac, 'other than,' 341, 1, c). Allia, gender of, 15, 3, N. alliciÅ, conj., 109, 2, b). Alliteration, 375, 3. Alphabet, 1. alter, decl., 66; 92, 1; ---- used correlatively, 253, 1. Alternative questions, 162, 4; ---- indirect, 300, 4. alteruter, decl., 92, 2. alvus, gender of, 26, 1, b. amandus sum, conj., 115. amÄtÅ«rus sum, conj., 115. amb- (ambi-), 159, 3, N. ambÅ, 80, 2, a; ---- usage, 355, 2. amÅ, conj., 101. amplius = amplius quam, 217, 3. amussis, -im, 38, 1. an, 162, 4, and a); 300, 4; ---- haud sciÅ an, nesciÅ an, 300, 5. Anacoluthon, 374, 6. Anapaest, 366, 2. Anaphora, 350, 11, b). Anastrophe of prep., 141, 2; 142, 3; 144, 3. anceps (syllaba anceps), defined, 366, 10. AndrogeÅs, decl., 27. animal, decl., 39. Animals, as agents, 216, 2. animÄ«, locative, 232, 3. annÅn, in double questions, 162, 4. Answers, 162, 5. ante, prep. w. acc., 141; ---- as adv., 144, 1; ---- dat. w. verbs compounded w. ante, 187, III; ---- in expressions of time, 357, 1; 371, 5; ---- ante diem, 371, 5; 6. Antecedent of rel., 251. ---- attraction of, 251, 4. ---- incorporated with rel., 251, 4. Antecedent omitted, 251, 1. ---- repeated with rel., 251, 3. Antepenult, 6, 2. antepÅnÅ, with dat., 187, III, 2. antequam, with ind., 291; ---- with subjv., 292. Anticipation, denoted by subjv., w. antequam and priusquam, 292; ---- by subjv. with dum, dÅnec, quoad, 293, III, 2; 374, 5. -Änus, suffix, 151, 2; 152, 1; 3. Aorist tense, see Historical perfect. Apodosis, 301 ff. ---- in conditional sent. of 1st type, 302, 4; ---- result clauses as apodoses, 322; ---- quÄ«n- clauses as apodoses, 322; ---- ind. questions as apodoses, 322, b; ---- potuerim in apodosis, 322, c; ---- apodosis in indir. disc., 319-321; ---- in expressions of obligation, ability, etc., 304, 3, a; ---- with periphrastic conjugations, 304, 3, b. Apposition, 169; ---- agreement, 169, 2; ---- partitive, 169, 5; ---- with voc. in nom., 171, 2; ---- genitive w. force of appositive, 202; ---- id as appositive of clause, 247, 1, b; ---- inf. as appositive, 326; 329; ---- subst. clauses as appositives, 282, 1, f; 294; 297, 3. Appositive of locative, 169, 4; ---- with acc. of limit of motion, 182, 2, a; ---- with town names, in abl. of place whence, 229, 2. ---- position of, 350, 2. aptus, w. dat., 192, 2. apud, prep. w. acc., 141. ArchiÄs, declension of, 22. -ar, declension of nouns in, 39. arguÅ, constr., 178, 1, d). -Äris, suffix, 151, 2. -Ärium, suffix, 148, 3. -Ärius, suffix, 151, 2. armiger, decl., 23, 2. Arrangement of words, 348-350; ---- of clauses, 351. Arsis, defined, 366, 6. artÅ«s, dat. and abl. plu. of, 49, 3. arx, decl., 40. -Äƒs, acc. plu. in Greek nouns, 47, 3. -Äs, old gen. sing., 1st decl., case-ending, 21, 2, a). ---- ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing. in, 22. ---- gender of nouns in -Äs, 43, 2; 45, 1. ---- voc. of Greek nouns in -Äs, antis, 47, 4. ---- -Ätis, abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c). Asking, case const, with verbs of, 178, 1, c; ---- subst. clauses w., 295, 1; ---- ind. questions, 300, 1. Aspirates, 2, 3, c. Assimilation of consonants, 8, 4 f.; 9, 2. Association, abl. of, 222A. Asyndeton, 341, 4, a); 346. at, 343, 1, d). -Ätim, suffix, 157, 2. AtlÄs, decl., 47, 4. atomus, gender of, 26, 1, c). atque, 341, 2, b); ---- = as, 341, 1, c). atquÄ«, 343, 1, e). Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 221: 227, 2, e). Attraction of demonstratives, 246, 5; ---- of relatives, 250, 5; ---- subjunctive by attraction, 324; ---- of adjectives, 327, 2, a; 328, 2. Attributive adjs., 233, 2. -Ätus, its force as suffix, 151, 4. audÄcter, formation and comparison, 76, 2. audeÅ, conj., 114, 1. audiÅ, conj., 107; ---- with pres. partic., 337, 3. aulÄÄ«, archaic gen., 21, 2, b. ausus, force as participle, 336, 5. aut, 342, 1, a). autem, 343, 1, c); 350, 8. Auxiliary omitted in infin., 116, 5: ---- ---- in finite forms, 166, 3. auxilium, auxilia, 61. -Äx, suffix, 150, 2.

B.

balneum, balneae, 60, 2. barbitos, decl., 27. Believing, verbs of, with dat., 187, II. bellÄ«, locative, 232, 2. bellum, decl., 23. bene, comparison, 77, 1. Benefiting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. benevolus, comparison, 71, 5, a). -ber, declension of month names in, 68, 1. -bilis, suffix, 150, 4. bonus, decl., 63; comparison, 72. bÅs, decl., 41. Brachylogy, 374, 2. Bucolic diaeresis, 368, 3, d -bulum, suffix, 147, 4. -bundus, suffix, 150, 1. bÅ«ris, decl., 38, 1

C.

C., for G. as abbreviation of GÄius, 373. caedÄ“s, decl., 40. Caesura, 366, 8: ---- in dactylic hexameter 368, 3. calcar, decl., 39. Calendar, 371; 372. Calends, 371, 2, a). campester, decl., 68, 1 canis, decl., 38, 2. capiÅ, conj., 110 carbasus, gender of, 26, 1 b). carcer, carcerÄ“s, 61. Cardinals, defined. 78, 1; ---- list of, 79; ---- decl., 80; ---- with and without et, 81, 1; 3; ---- expressed by subtraction, 81, 2; ---- replaced by attributives in poetry, 81, 4, d. cÄrÄ“, comparison, 76, 2. carÅ, decl., 42. carrus, carrum, 60, 1. Cases, 17; ---- alike in form, 19; 170 ff. Case-endings, 17, 3. castrum, castra, 61. Catalectic verses, 366, 9. causÄ, with gen., 198, 1; ---- nÅ«lla causa est cÅ«r, with subjv., 295, 7. Causal clauses, 285; 286; ---- clause of characteristic with accessory notion of cause, 283, 3. ---- conjunctions, 345. Cause, abl. of, 219; 227, 2, d) cavÄ“, cavÄ“ nÄ“ in prohibitions, 276, b. -ce, 6, 3 f.; 87, footnote 23. cedo, cette, 137, 3. cÄ“dÅ, with dat. 187, II. celeber, decl., 68, 1. celer, decl., 68, 2. cÄ“lÅ, constr., 178, 1, e). cÄ“nÄtus, force, 114, 2. cÄ“tera, adverbial acc., 185, 2. ceterÄ«, use, 253, 4. Characterstic, clauses of, 283; ---- denoting cause or opposition ('although'), 283, 3; ---- gen. of, 208, 1; ---- abl., 224. Charge, gen. of, 208, 1; 2. Chiasmus, 350, 11, c). Choosing, const. w. verbs of, 177, 1-3. circÄ, circiter, circum, preps. w. acc., 141. circum, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III. circumdÅ, const., 187, 1, a. Circumstance, abl. of attendant, 221. cis, prep. w. acc., 141. citerior, comparison, 73, 1. cito, 77, 2, a. citrÄ, prep. w. acc., 141. cÄ«vitÄs decl., 40, 1, e. clam, with acc., 144, 2. Clauses, coÃ¶rd. and subord., 164, 165. Clauses of characteristic, 283; ---- purpose, 282; ---- result, 284; ---- causal, 285; ---- temporal with postquam, ut, ubi, simul ac, etc., 287; ---- with cum, 288; ---- substantive clauses, 294 f.; ---- condition, 301 f.; ---- conditional comparison, 307; ---- concessive, 308; ---- adversative, 309; ---- wish or proviso, 310; ---- relative, 311 f.; 283 f. clÄvis, decl., 38, 1. Clinging, construction of verbs of, 258, 3. clipeus, clipeum, 60, 1. Close of sentences, cadences used, 350, 12. coepÄ«, conj., 133; ---- coeptus est, 133, 1. Cognate acc., 176, 4. cognÅmen, 373. cÅgÅ, w. acc., 178, 1, d); ---- w. infin., 331, VI. Collective nouns, 12, 2, a); ---- w. plu. verb, 254, 4. colus, gender of, 26, 1, b). com-, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III. comedÅ, conj., 128, 2. comÄ“tÄ“s, decl., 22. comitia, as time expression, 230, 1. Commanding, dat. w. verbs of, 187, II; ---- subst. clause w. verbs of, 295, 1; ---- commands expressed by jussive subjv., 275; ---- ---- by imperative, 281. Common gender, 15, B, N. 1. ---- nouns, 12, 1. ---- syllables, 5, B, 3. commonefaciÅ, w. gen, and acc., 207. commoneÅ, w. gen. and acc., 207. commÅ«nis, w. gen., 204, 2; ---- with dat., 204, 2, a. commÅ«tÅ, w. abl., 222A. Comparatives, decl., 69; ---- w. abl., 217; ---- w. quam, 217, 2; ---- occasional meaning, 240. ---- two required in Latin, 240, 4. Comparison of adjs., 71 f.; ---- of adverbs, 76; 77. ---- participles as adjs., 71, 2. ---- adjs. in -dicus, -ficus, -volus, 71, 5. ---- defective, 73. ---- abl. of, 217. Comparison, conditional, 307. Compendiary comparison, 374, 2, b); ---- w. result clauses, 284, 4; ---- w. clauses of characteristic, 283, 2, a. Completed action, tenses expressing, 262-4; 267, 3. Compounds, 158 f.; ---- spelling of, 9, 2. Compound sentences, 164. ---- verbs governing acc., 175, 2, a; ---- governing dat., 187, III; 188, 2, d. Conative uses of pres., 259, 2; ---- of imperf., 260, 3; ---- of pres. partic., 336, 2, a. Concessive clauses, 308; ---- 'although' as accessory idea to clause of characteristic, 283, 3. ---- subjunctive, 278. Conclusion, see Apodosis. Concrete nouns, 12, 2, a). Condemning, verbs of, constr., 208, f. Conditional clauses of comparison, 307. ---- sentences, 1st type (nothing implied), 302; ---- ---- in indir. disc., 319; ---- ---- 2d type ('should'-'would'), 303; ---- ---- in indir. disc., 320; ---- ---- 3d type (contrary to fact), 304; ---- ---- in indir. disc., 321; ---- ---- abl. abs. equivalent to, 227, 2, b); ---- ---- introduced by relative pronouns, 312; ---- ---- general conditions, 302, 2; 3; ---- ---- indicative in contrary-to-fact apodoses, 304, 3; ---- ---- protasis omitted or implied, 305, 1; ---- ---- protasis contained in imperative, or jussive subjv., 305, 2; ---- ---- employment of nisi, sÄ« nÅn, sÄ«n, sÄ« minus, 306; ---- ---- conditional relative sentences, 312, 2. cÅnfÄ«dÅ, w. abl., 219, 1, a. Conjugation, 11; 93 f.; ---- the four conjugations, 98; ---- periphrastic, 115; ---- peculiarities of conj., 116. Conjunctions, 145, 1; 341 f. cÅnor, with inf., 295, 5, a. Consecutive clauses, see Result clauses. cÅnsistere, with abl., 218, 4. Consonant stems, nouns, 29 f.; ---- adjs., 70, 1. ---- partially adapted to Ä-stems, 40. Consonants, 2, 2 f.; ---- pronunciation, 3, 3. ---- double, 2, 9. ---- combinations of, in division into syllables, 4, 2 f. Consonant changes, 8; ---- omission of finals 8, 3; ---- assimilation of, 8, 4 f. ---- stems, 29; ---- ---- following analogy of Ä-stems, 40. cÅnspiciÅ, conj., 109, 2, b). cÅnstÄre, w. abl., 218, 4. Construction acc. to sense, 254, 4; 235, B, 2, c). cÅnsuÄ“tÅ«dÅ est, with subjv. substantive clause, 297, 3. cÅnsuÄ“vÄ« = pres., 262, A. cÅnsulÄris, abl. sing. of, 70, 5, a. Contending, verbs of, with dat., 358, 3. contentus, w. abl., 219, 1. continerÄ«, with abl., 218, 4. contingit ut, 297, 2. Continued action, tenses for, 257, 1, b. contrÄ, prep. w. acc., 141; ---- as adv., 144, 1. Contraction, 7, 2. ---- length of vowel as result of, 5, A, 1, b). Contrary-to-fact conditions, 304. Convicting, verbs of, constr., 208 f. CoÃ¶rdinate clauses, 165. ---- conjunctions, 341 f. cÅpia, cÅpiae, 61. Copulative conjunctions, 341. cor, lacks gen. plu., 57, 7. cornÅ«, decl., 48. Correlative conjunctions, 341, 3; 342, 2. ---- adverbs, 140. cottÄ«diÄ“, spelling, 9, 2. Countries, gender of, 26, 1, a. Crime, gen. of, 208, 1; 2. -crum, suffix, 147, 4. -culum, suffix, 147, 4. -culus (a, um), suffix, 148, 1. cum, appended, 142, 4. cum (conj.), 'when,' 288-290; ---- 'whenever,' 288, 3. ---- adversative, 309, 3. ---- causal, 286, 2. ---- explicative, 290. ---- to denote a recurring action, 288, 3; 289, a. ---- inversum, 288, 2. com ... tum, 290, 2. cum prÄ«mum, 287, 1. cum, spelling of, 9, 1. cum (prep.), with abl. of manner, 220; ---- with abl. of accompaniment, 222; ---- appended to prons., 142, 4. -cundus, suffix, 150, 1. cupiÅ, conj, 109, 2, a); ---- with subst. clause developed from optative, 296; ---- w. inf., 331, IV, and a. cÅ«r, nÅ«lla causa est cÅ«r, w. subjv., 295, 7. cÅ«rÅ, with gerundive const as obj., 337, 8, b, 2. Customary action, 259, 1; 260, 2.

D.

D, changed to s, 8, 2; ---- d final omitted, 8, 3; ---- assimilated, 8, 4. Dactyl, 366, 2. Dactylic hexameter, 368. ---- pentameter, 369. dapis, defective, 57, 6. Daring, verbs of, with obj. inf., 328, 1. Dates 371, 2-5; ---- as indeclinable nouns, 371, 6; ---- in leap year, 371, 7. Dative 17; ---- irregular, 1st decl., 21, 2, c); ---- 3d decl., 47, 5; ---- 4th decl., 49, 2; 3; ---- 5th decl., 52, 1 and 3; 186 ff. ---- in the gerundive const., 339, 7. ---- of agency, 189. ---- of direction and limit of motion, 193. ---- of indir. obj., 187. ---- of advantage or disadvantage, so called, 188, 1. ---- of local standpoint, 188, 2, a). ---- of person judging, 188, 2, c). ---- of possession, 190; 359, 1. ---- of purpose or tendency, 191; 339, 7. ---- of reference, 188. ---- of separation, 188, 2, d). ---- of the gerund, 338, 2. ---- with adjs., 192; ---- with proprius, commÅ«nis, 204, 2; ---- with similis, 204, 3. ---- with compound verbs, 187, III. ---- with intrans. verbs, 187, II. ---- with nÅmen est, 190, 1. ---- with impersonal pass. verbs, 187, II, b. ---- with trans. verbs, 187, I. ---- with verbs of mingling, 358, 3. ---- ethical dat., 188, 2, b). dÄ“, prep. w. abl., 142; ---- with abl. instead of gen. of whole, 201, 1, a; ---- with verbs of reminding, 207, a; ---- compounds of dÄ“ governing dat., 188, 2, d; ---- dÄ“ vÄ«, with verbs of accusing and convicting, 208, 3; ---- with gerund and gerundive, 338, 4, b. dea, deÄbus, 21, 2, e). dÄ“bÄ“bam, dÄ“buÄ« in apodosis, 304, 3, a). dÄ“beÅ, governing obj. inf., 328, 1. dÄ“buÄ«, with pres inf., 270, 2. decemvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b). dÄ“cernÄ“, w. subst. clause developed from volitive, 295, 4. decet, w. acc., 175, 2, c). Declarative sentences, defined, 161, 1; ---- in indir. disc., 314. Declension, 11; ---- heteroclites, 59. ---- stems and gen. terminations, 18. ---- 1st decl., 20-22; ---- 2d decl., 23-27; ---- 3d decl., 28-47; ---- 4th decl., 48-50; ---- 5th decl., 51-53; ---- of Greek nouns, 22; 27; 47; ---- of adjs., 62-69; ---- of prons., 84-90. Decreeing, verbs of, w. subjv., 295, 4. dÄ“decet, 175, 2, c). Defective verbs, 133 f.; ---- nouns, 54 f.; 52, 4; 57; ---- comparison, 73. Definite perfect, see Present perfect. Degree of difference, abl. of, 223. Degrees of comparison, 71 ff. dÄ“lectat, w. inf. as subj., 327, 1. dÄ“lector, w. abl. of cause, 219. Deliberative subjv., 277; ---- in indir. questions, 300, 2; ---- in indir. disc., 315, 3. Demanding, verbs of, w. two accs., 178, 1; ---- w. subst. clause, 295, 1. Demonstrative pronouns, 87; 246; ---- of 1st, 2d, and 3d persons, 87; ---- position of demonstratives, 350, 5, a. Denominative verbs, 156. Dental mutes, 2, 4; ---- stems, 33. Dependent clauses, 282 ff. Deponent verbs, 112; ---- forms with passive meanings, 112, b); ---- semi-deponents, 114. Depriving, verbs of, w. abl, 214, 1, b. Derivatives, 147 f. -dÄ“s, patronymics in, 148, 6. Description, imperf. as tense of, 260, 1, a. Desideratives, 155, 3. Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, 1; ---- verbs of, w. subst. clauses, 296, 1. dÄ“terior, 73, 1. deus, decl., 25, 4. dÄ“vertor, 114, 3. dexter, decl, 65, 1. dÄ«-, 159, 3, N. Diaeresis, 366, 8; ---- bucolic d., 368, 3, d). Diastole, 367, 2. dÄ«c, 116, 3. dÄ«citur, dictum est, w. inf., 332, note. dÄ«cÅ, accent of compounds of, in imperative, 116, 3. -dicus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. DÄ«dÅ, decl, 47, 8. diÄ“s, decl., 51; ---- gender, 53. Difference, abl of degree of, 223. difficile est = Eng. potential, 271, 1, b). difficilis, comp., 71, 4. dignor, with abl., 226, 2. dignus, 226, 2; ---- in rel. clauses of purpose, 282, 3. Dimeter, verses, 366, 11. Diminutives, 148, 1. Diphthongs, 2, 1; 3, 2; ---- diphthong stems, 41; ---- diphthongs shortened, 362, 2. diphthongus, gender of, 26, 1. c). Dipodies, 366, 11. Direct reflexives, 244, 1. ---- object, 172. ---- quotation, 313. ---- discourse, 313. ---- questions, 162. dis-, in compounds, 159, 3, N. Disjunctive conjunctions, 342. dissimilis, comp., 71, 4. Distributives, 63, 2; 78, 1; 79; 81, 4. diÅ«, compared, 77, 1. dÄ«ves, decl., 70, 1; ---- compared, 71, 6. dÄ«xtÄ«, 116, 4, c. dÅ, conj., 127. doceÅ, with acc., 178, 1, b); ---- with inf., 331, VI. domÄ«, locative, 232, 2. domÅ, 229, 1, b). domÅs, 182, 1, b. domum, 182, 1, b); ---- 'house,' in acc., 182, N. domus, decl., 49, 4; ---- gender, 50. dÅnec, with ind., 293; ---- with subjv., 293, III, 2. dÅnÅ, constr., 187, 1, a. dÅs, gender, 44, 3. Double consonants, 2, 9. ---- questions, 162, 4; ---- ---- indirect, 300, 4. Doubting, verbs of, w. quÄ«n, 298. Dubitative subjunctive, see Deliberative. dubitÅ, dubium est, nÅn dubitÅ, nÅn dubium est, with quin, 298; ---- nÅn dubitÅ w. inf., 298, a. dÅ«c, 116, 3. dÅ«cÅ, accent of compounds of, in imper., 116, 3. duim, duint, 127, 2. -dum, 6, 3. dum, temporal with ind., 293; ---- with subjv., 293, III, 2; ---- in wishes and provisos, 310. dummodo, 310. duo, decl, 80, 2. Duration of time, 181, 2. Duty, expressed by gerundive, 189, 337, 8; ---- verbs of duty in conclusion of cond. sentences contrary-to-fact, 304, 3, a; ---- subst. clauses dependent on verbs of, 295, 6; ---- inf. w. verbs of duty, 327, 1; 328, 1; 330; ---- 'it is the duty of,' 198, 3; ---- 'I perform a duty, 218, 1. duumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b). dux, decl, 32.

E.

Ä•, as vowel, 2, 1; ---- as second member of diphthongs, 2, 1; ---- sound of, 3, 1; ---- change, to Ä, 7, 1, a; ---- for Äƒ, 7, 1, c; ---- in voc. sing, of 2d decl., 23; ---- in abl. sing, of 3d decl., 31; ---- dropped in nom. of neuters of 3d decl., 39; ---- -Ä• for -Ä in abl. of mare, 39; ---- alternating w. Ä« in abl. sing. of Ä-stems, 37, 38; ---- for Ä“ in gen. sing. of 5th decl., 52, 1; ---- in abl. sing. of adjs. of 3d decl., 70, 1; ---- in benÄ• and malÄ•, 77, 1; ---- distinguishing vowel of 3d conj., 98; ---- before j, 362, 5; ---- for -Ä“ in imperatives, 363, 2, b; ---- in temerÄ• and saepÄ•, 363, 2, c. Ä“, pronunciation, 3, 1; ---- by contraction, 7, 2; ---- as ending of Greek nouns, 22; ---- Ä“-stems, 51; ---- ending of dat. of 5th decl., 52, 3; ---- distinguishing vowel of 2d conj., 98; ---- -Ä“ in famÄ“ 363, 2, a; ---- ---- in adverbs, 363, 2, c Ä“, ex, use, 142; see ex. ecquis, 91, 6. Ä“dÄ«c, 116, 3. Editorial 'we,' 242, 3. edÅ, 128. Ä“dÅ«c, 116, 3. efficiÅ ut, 297, 1. efficitur ut, 297, 2. Effort, subjv. w. verbs of, 295, 5. egeÅ, w. abl., 214, 1, c. ego, 84. egomet, 84, 2. ei, diphthong, 2, 1; 3, 2. -Ä•i, gen. of 5th decl., 52, 1. -Ä“is, 148, 6, b). ejus, as poss., 86, 1; ---- quantity, 362, 5. Elegiac distich, 369, 2. Elision, 266, 7. Ellipsis, 374, 1. -ellus (a, um), 148, 1. Emphasis, 349. Enclitics, accent of preceding syllable, 6, 3. ---- -met, 84, 2; ---- -pte, 86, 3; ---- cum as enclitic, 142, 4 End of motion, see Limit. Endings, case endings, 17, 3; ---- personal, of verb, 96; ---- in formation of words, 147 f. enim, 345. -Ä“nsimus (-Ä“nsumus), 79, N. -Ä“nsis, 151, 2; 152, 3. Envy, verbs of, with dat., 187, II eÅ, 132; ---- cpds., 132, 1. Epexegetical genitive, 202. Epistolary tenses, 265. epistula, spelling, 9, 2. epitomÄ“, decl., 22. epulum, epulae, 60, 2. equÄbus, 21, 2, e). equester, decl., 68, 1. equos, decl., 24. -er, decl., of nouns in, 23; ---- adjs., 63; 64; 65; ---- adjs. in -er compared, 71, 3. ergÄ, prep. w. acc., 141. ergÅ, 344, 1, b). -ernus, suffix, 154. -Ä•s, gender of nouns in, 43, 1; ---- ---- exception, 44, 5; ---- in nom. plu. of Greek nouns of 3d decl., 47, 2. -Ä“s, ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing. in, 22. ---- gen. -is, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, a). esse, conjugation of, 100; ---- compounds of, 125; 126; ---- esse omitted, 116, 5. est quÄ«, with subj., 283, 2. et, 341, 1, a; ---- in enumerations, 341, 4, c). et is, 247, 4. et ... neque, 341, 3. Ethical dative, 188, 2, b). etiam, in answers, 162, 5. et nÅn, 341, 2, c). etsÄ«, 'although,' 309, 2; ---- etsÄ«, 'even if,' 309, 2, a. -Ä“tum, suffix, 148, 3. -eus, inflection of Greek nouns in, 47, 6; ---- adj. suffix, 151, 1. Ä“venit ut, 297, 2. ex, 142, 2; ---- with abl., instead of gen. of whole, 201, 1, a; ---- compounds of, with dat., 188, 2, d; ---- with abl. of source, 215, 1. Exchanging, verbs of, with abl. of association, 222A. Exclamation, acc. of, 183. Exclamatory sentences, 161, 3. Expectancy, clauses denoting, in subjv., 292, 1; 293, III, 2. exposcÅ, constr., 178, 1, a). exsistÅ, spelling, 9, 2. exspectÅ, spelling, 9, 2. exterÄ«, xterior, 73, 2. extrÄ“mus, use, 241, 1. exuÅ, w. abl., 214, 1, b.

F.

f, pronunciation, 3, 3; ---- nf, quantity of vowel before, 5, 1, a. fac, 116, 3; ---- with subjv., 295, 5. facile, 77, 3. facilis, comp., 71, 4. faciÅ, 109, 2, a); ---- pass. of, 131. ---- in imper., 116, 3. falsus, comparison, 73, 3. famÄ“, 59, 2, b). Familiarity, adjs. of, w. gen., 204. 1. familiÄs, 21, 2, a. fÄrÄ«, 136. fÄs, indeclinable, 58. faucÄ“s, decl., 40, 1, d. Favor, verbs signifying, with dat., 187, II. Fearing, verbs of, constr. 296, 2. febris, decl. 38, 1. fÄ“lÄ«x, 70. Feminine, see Gender. Feminine caesura, 368, 3, c. femur, decl. 42, 4. -fer, decl. of nouns in; adjs., 23, 2; ---- adjs. 65, 1. ferÅ, and its compounds, 129. -ficus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. fideÄ«, 52, 1. fÄ«dÅ, 114, 1; ---- with abl., 219, 1, a. fÄ«dus, compared, 73, 3. fÄerem, fÄerÄ« 362, 1, c; ---- fierÄ« potest ut, 298, 2. Fifth decl., 51 f. Figures of rhetoric, 375. ---- of syntax, 374. fÄ«lÄ«, 25, 3. fÄ«lia, fÄ«liÄbus, 21, 2, e Filling, verbs of, w. abl., 218, 8. Final clauses, see Purpose clauses. Final consonant omitted, 8, 3. Final syllables, quantity, 363, 364. fÄ«nis, fÄ«nÄ“s, 61. Finite verb, 95. fÄ«Å, conj., 131. fÄ«Å, with abl., 218, 6. First conj., 101; ---- principal parts of verbs of, 120; ---- deponents of 1st conj., 113. First decl., 20 f.; ---- peculiarities, 21; ---- Greek nouns of 1st decl., 22. fit ut, 297, 2. flÄgitÅ, constr., 178, 1, a. fodiÅ, conj., 109, 2, a. Foot, in verse, 366, 2. 'For,' its Latin equivalents, 358, 1. fore, 100, footnote 32. fore ut, 270, 3; ---- 297, 2. forem, forÄ“s, etc., 100, footnote 31. forÄ«s, 228, 1, c. Formation of words, 146 f. fors, forte, 57, 2, a. fortior, decl., 69. fortis, 69. fortÅ«na, fortÅ«nae, 61. Fourth conj., 107. Fourth decl., 48; ---- dat. in -Å«, 49, 2; ---- gen. in -Ä«, 49, 1; ---- dat. abl. plu. in -ubus, 49, 3. fraude, abl. of manner, 220, 2. Free, abl. w. adjs. signifying, 214, 1, d. Freeing, abl. w. verbs of, 214, 1, a. frÄ“num, plu. of, 60, 2. Frequentatives, 155, 2. frÄ“tus w. abl., 218, 3. Fricatives, 2, 7. Friendly, dat. w. adjs. signifying, 192, 1. frÅ«ctus, decl., 48. frÅ«gi, compared, 72; 70, 6. frÅ«gis, 57, 6. fruor, with abl., 218, 1; ---- in gerundive constr., 339, 4. fugiÅ, conj., 109, 2, a). fuÄ«, fuistÄ«, etc., for sum, es, etc., in compound tenses, 102, footnotes 36, 37. Fullness, adjs. of, w. abl., 218, 8; ---- w. gen., 204, 1. fungor, w. abl., 218, 1; ---- in gerundive constr., 339, 4. fÅ«r, decl., 40, 1, d. fÅ«rtÅ, abl. of manner, 220, 2. Future tense, 161; ---- w. imperative force, 261, 3. ---- time in the subjv., 269. ---- perfect, 264; ---- ---- with future meaning, 133, 2; ---- ---- inf., 270, 4. ---- imperative, 281, 1. ---- infinitive, 270; ---- ---- periphrastic fut. inf., 270, 3, and a. ---- participle, 337, 4. futÅ«rum esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3.

G.

gaudeÅ, semi-deponent, 114, 1. gemÅ, w. acc., 175, 2, b. Gender 13-15; ---- in 1st decl., 20; 21; ---- in 2d decl., 23; ---- exceptions, 26; ---- in 3d decl., 43 f.; ---- in 4th decl., 50; ---- in 5th decl., 53; ---- determined by endings, 14; ---- ---- by signification, 15, A; ---- heterogeneous nouns, 60. gener, decl, 23, 2. General relatives, 312, 1; ---- general truths, 259, 1; 262, B, 1; ---- 'general' conditions, 302, 2; 3. Genitive, 17; ---- in -Ä« for -iÄ«, 25, 1 and 2; ---- of 4th decl., in -Ä«, 49, 1; ---- of 5th decl. in -Ä«, 52, 2; ---- of 5th decl. in -Ä•Ä«, 52, 1; ---- ---- in -Ä“, 52, 3; ---- of 1st decl. in -ÄÄ«, 21, 2, b; ---- of 1st decl. in -Äs, 21, 2, a; ---- gen. plu. -um for -Ärum, 21, 2 d); ---- ---- -um for Årum, 25, 6; 63, 2; ---- ---- -um for -ium, 70, 7; ---- gen. plu. lacking, 57, 7; ---- syntax of, 194 f. ---- of characteristic, 203, 1. ---- of charge with judicial verbs, 208. ---- of indefinite price, 203, 4. ---- of indefinite value, 203, 3. ---- of material, 197. ---- of measure, 203, 2. ---- of origin, 196. ---- of possession, 198. ---- of quality, 203. ---- of the whole, 201. ---- appositional, 202. ---- objective, 200. ---- of separation, 212, 3. ---- subjective, 199. ---- with adjs., 204; ---- ---- with participles, 204, 1, a. ---- with causÄ, grÄtiÄ, 198, 1. ---- with verbs, 205 f.; ---- ---- of plenty and want, 212; ---- ---- with impers. verbs, 209. ---- position of gen., 350, 1. genus, decl. 36; ---- id genus, 185, 1. -ger, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2; ---- adjs., 65, 1. Gerund, 95, 1; ---- 1st conj., 101; ---- 2d conj., 103; ---- 3d conj., 105; ---- 4th conj., 107; ---- syntax, 338; ---- with object, 338, 5. Gerundive, 95, 1; ---- 1st conj., 102; ---- 2d conj., 104; ---- 3d conj., 106; ---- 4th conj., 108; ---- in periphrastic conj., 115; 337, 8. Gerundive, const., 339, 1-6; ---- in passive periphrastic conj., 337, 8 f.; ---- gen. denoting purpose, 339, 6; ---- with dat. of purpose, 191, 3; 339, 7. gnÄrus, not compared, 75, 2. Gnomic present, 259, 1; ---- perfect, 262, 1. gradior, conj., 109, 2, c. Grammatical gender, 15. grÄtiÄ, with gen., 198, 1; ---- grÄtia, grÄtiae, 61. Greek nouns, 1st decl., 22; ---- 2d decl., 27; ---- ---- exceptions in gender, 26, 1, c); ---- 3d decl., 47; ---- Greek acc., 180; ---- Greek nouns in verse, 365. grÅ«s, decl., 41, 2. gu = gv, 3, 3. Guttural mutes, 2, 4. ---- stems, 32.

H.

h, pron., 3, 3; ---- ph, ch, th, 2, 4; 3, 3. habeÅ, with perf. pass. partic., 337, 6. Hadria, gender, 21, 1. Happening, verbs of, w. ind., 299, 1, 2; ---- w. subjv., 297, 2. Hard consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote 4. Hardening, 367, 4. haud, use, 347, 2, a; ---- haud sciÅ an, 300, 5. havÄ“, 137, 5. Help, verbs signifying, w. dat. 187, II. Hendiadys, 374, 4. herÄ«, locative, 232, 2. Heteroclites, 59. Heterogeneous nouns, 60. Hexameter, dactylic, 368. Hiatus, 366, 7, a. hÄ«c, 87; 246, 1; 246, 2; ---- hÄc, 364, footnote 60. hiems, 35, footnote 13. Hindering, verbs of, with subjv., 295, 3. Historical tenses, 258; ---- historical present, 259, 3; 268, 3; ---- historical perfect, 262, B; ---- historical infinitive, 335. honor, decl., 36. Hoping, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I. Hortatory subjv., 274. hortus, decl., 23. hÅscine, 87, footnote 23 hostis, decl., 38. hÅ«jusce, 87, footnote 23 humÄ«, locative, 232, 2. humilis, comp., 71, 4. humus, gender of, 26, 1, b. huncine, 87, footnote 23 Hyperbaton, 350, 11, a. Hypermeter, 367, 6. Hysteron proteron, 374, 7.

I.

Ä, 1, 1; ---- in diphthongs, 2, 1; ---- pron., 3, 1; ---- from Ä•, 7, 1, a; ---- from Äƒ, 7, 1, b; ---- dropped by syncope, 7, 4; ---- for Å in some words, 9, 1; ---- changes to Ä•, 39; ---- dropped, 39; ---- final i short, 363, 3; ---- becomes j, 367, 4. Ä-stems, 37; 39; ---- not always ending in -is, 38, 3. -Ä«, gen. and voc. of 2d decl. nouns in -ius and -ium in, 25, 1 and 2. ---- gen. of 4th decl. nouns in -us, 49, 1. ---- gen. of 5th decl. nouns, 52, 2. Ä«-stem, vÄ«s, 41. Ä«, in abl., 3d decl., 38, 1; 39; ---- in adjs., 67, 3, a; 70, 5; ---- participles, 70, 3; ---- patrials, 70, 5, c); ---- nom. plu., of is, 87; ---- as characteristic of 4th conj., 98. -ia, 149. Iambus, 366, 2. Iambic measures, 370. ---- trimeter, 370. -iÄnus, suffix, 152, 1. -ias, suffix, 148, 6, b). -Ä«bam, in imperf., 116, 4, b). -Ä«bÅ, in future, 116, 4, b). Ictus, 366, 5. -icus, suffix, 151, 2; 152, 2. id aetÄtis, 185, 2. id genus, 185, 1. id quod 247, 1, b. id temporis, 185, 2. Ideal 'you'; see Indefinite second person. Ä«dem, 87; 248. Ä«dem ac, 248, 2. Ides, 371, 2, c). -Ä«dÄ“s, suffix, 148, 6, a). -ÄdÄ“s, suffix, 148, 6, a). -Ä«dÅ, suffix, 147, 3, c). idÅneus, not compared, 74, 2; ---- w. dat., 192, 2.; ---- w. ad and acc., 192, 2 and N.; ---- with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3. -Ädus, suffix, 150, 3. ÄªdÅ«s, fem. by exception, 50. -ie, in voc. sing. of adjs. in -ius, 63, 1. iÄ“ns, pres. partic. from eÅ, 132. -iÄ“ns, as ending of numeral adverbs, 97 and N. -ier, inf. ending, 116, 4, a. -iÄ“s, nouns in, 51. igitur, 344, 1, c). Ä«gnis, decl., 38. -iÄ«, in gen, sing. of iÅ-stems, 25, 2. iÄ«s, in dat. and abl. plu. of is, 87. -Ä«le, suffix, 148, 3. Äªlion, decl., 27. -Ä«lis, suffix, 151, 2. -ilis, suffix, 150, 4. Illative conjunctions, 344. ille, 87; ---- 'the following,' 246, 2; ---- 'the former,' 246, 1; ---- 'the well-known,' 246, 3; ---- position, 350, 5, b. illÅ«c, 87, footnote 25. -illus (a, um), diminutive suffix, 148, 1. -im, in acc., 3d decl., 38, 1. -im, -Ä«s in subjv., 116, 4, d. impedÄ«mentum, impedÄ«menta, 61. Imperative, 281; ---- tenses in, 94, 3; 281, 1; ---- future indic. with force of, 261, 3. ---- as protasis of a conditional sent., 305, 2; ---- ---- as apodosis, 302, 4. ---- sent. in indir disc., 316. Imperfect tense, 260; ---- conative, 260, 3; ---- inceptive, 260, 3; ---- with jam, etc., 260, 4; ---- epistolary imp., 265. Imperfect subjv. in conditional sent. referring to the past, 304, 2. Impersonal verbs, 138; ---- gen. with, 209; ---- dat. with, 187, II, b; ---- in passive, 256, 3; ---- with substantive clauses developed from volitive, 295, 6; ---- of result, 297, 2; ---- with infin., 327, 1; 330. impetus, defective, 57, 4. Implied indir. disc., 323. Ä«mus, 'bottom of,' 241, 1. in, prep., 143; ---- verbs compounded w. in governing acc., 175, 2, a, 2; ---- verbs compounded w. in governing dat., 187, III. in with abl. of place, 228; ---- with abl. of time, 230, 2; 231. -Ä«na, suffix, 148, 5. Inceptives, 155, 1. Inchoatives, 155, 1. Incomplete action, 257, 1, b; 267, 3. Indeclinable adjs., 70, 6; 80, 6. ---- nouns, 58; ---- ---- gender of, 15, 3. Indefinite price, 225, 1; 203, 4. Indefinite pronouns, 91, 252; ---- in conditions, 302, 3. Indefinite second person, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302, 2. Indefinite value, 203, 3. Indicative, equivalent to Eng. subjv., 271. ---- in apodosis of conditional sent. of 3d type, 304, 3, a) and b). indigeÅ, constr., 214, 1, N. 2. indignus, with abl., 226, 2; ---- with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3. Indirect discourse, defined, 313 f.; ---- ---- mood in, 313 ff.; ---- ---- tenses in 317-18; ---- ---- declarative sentences in, 314; ---- ---- interrog. sentences in, 315; ---- ---- imperative sentences in, 316; ---- ---- conditional sentences in, 319-22; ---- ---- verbs introducing, 331, 1; ---- ---- verb of saying, etc., implied, 314, 2; ---- ---- ind. in subord. clauses of indir. disc., 314, 3; ---- ---- inf. for subjv. in indir. disc., 314, 4; ---- ---- subj. acc. omitted, 314, 5; ---- ---- implied indir. disc., 323. ---- questions, 300; ---- ---- particles introducing, 300, 1, a; ---- ---- deliberative subjv. in indir. quest., 300, 2; ---- ---- indir. quest. w. sÄ«, 300, 3; ---- ---- double indir. questions, 300, 4; ---- ---- in indir. quest., 300, 6; ---- ---- in conditional sents. of 3d type, 322, b. ---- reflexives, 244, 2. ---- object, 187. Ä«nferum, Ä«nferior, 73, 2. Ä«nfimus, 241, 1. Infinitive, gender of, 15, A 3; ---- in -ier, 116, 4, a; ---- force of tenses in, 270; 326 ff. ---- fut. perf. inf., 270, 4; ---- ---- periphrastic future, 270, 3. ---- without subj. acc., 326-328; 314, 5. ---- with subj. acc., 329-331. ---- as obj., 328; 331, ---- as subj., 327; 330. ---- with adjs., 333. ---- denoting purpose, 326, N. ---- in abl. abs., 227, 3. ---- in exclamations, 334. ---- historical inf., 335. Ä«nfitiÄs, constr., 182, 5. Inflection, 11. Inflections, 11 ff. Ä«nfrÄ, prep. w. acc., 141. ingÄ“ns, comp., 73, 4. injÅ«riÄ, abl. of manner, 220, 2. injussÅ«, defective, 57, 1; ---- the abl., 219, 2. inl- = ill-, 9, 2. innÄ«xus, w. abl., 218, 3. inops, decl., 70, 2. inquam, conj., 134. Inseparable prepositions, 159, 3, N. Ä«nsidiae, plu. only, 56, 3. Ä«nstar, 58. Instrumental uses of abl., 213; 218 ff. Intensive pron., 88. Intensives (verbs), 155, 2. inter, prep. w. acc., 141; ---- compounded w. verbs, governing dat. 187, III; ---- to express reciprocal relation, 245. interdÄ«cÅ, const., 188, 1, a. interest, constr., 210; 211. interior, comp., 73, 1. Interjections, 145. Interlocked order, 350, 11, d. Interrogative pronouns, 90. ---- sentences, 162; ---- particles, 162, 2; ---- ---- omitted, 162, 2, d); ---- in indir. disc., 315. intrÄ, prep. w. acc., 141. Intransitive verbs, with cognate acc., 176, 4; ---- in passive, 256, 3; 187, II, b; ---- impersonal intransitives, 138, IV. -Ä«nus, suffix, 151, 2; 152, 1; 152, 3. -iÅ, verbs of 3d conj., 109. -ior, ius, comparative ending, 71. ipse, 88; 249; ---- as indir. reflexive, 249, 3. ipsÄ«us and ipsÅrum, with possessive pronouns, 243, 3. -ir, decl. of nouns in, 23. Irregular comparison, 72 ff.; ---- nouns, 42; ---- verbs, 124 f. is, 87; 247; ---- as personal pron., 247, 2. -is, as patronymic ending, 148, 6, b); ---- nouns in -is of 3d decl., 37 f.; ---- adjs. in -is, 69. -Ä«s, acc. plu., 3d decl., 37; 40. ---- -Ä«tis, abl. of patrials in, 70, 5, c). istaec, 87, footnote 24. iste, 87; 246, 4. istÄ«c, 6, 4. istÅ«c, 6, 4; 87, footnote 24. ita, in answers, 162, 5. itaque, 344, 1, a). iter, 42, 1. -itia, 149. -itÅ, frequentatives in, 155, 2, a. -ium, gen. of nouns in, 25, 2; ---- ending of gen. plu., 3d decl., 37 f.; 39; 40; 147, 3, b); 148, 2. -ius, gen. and voc. sing. of nouns in, 25, 1 and 2; ---- of adjs., 63, a; 151, 2; 152, 2; 152, 3; ---- -Äus for -Ä«us, 362, 1, a). -Ä«vus, suffix, 151, 2.

J.

j, 1, 2. jaciÅ, conj., 109, 2, a); ---- compounds of, 9, 3; 362, 5. jam, etc., with present tense, 259, 4; ---- with imperfect, 260, 4. jecur, decl., 42, 3. jocÅ, abl. of manner, 220, 2. jocus, plu. of, 60, 2. Joining, verbs of, construction, 358, 3. jubeÅ, constr., 295, 1, a: 331, II. jÅ«dicor, w. inf., 332, c. jÅ«gerum, 59, 1. Julian calendar, 371. jungÅ, w. abl., 222A. Juppiter, decl., 41. jÅ«rÄtus, 114, 2. jÅ«re, abl. of manner, 220, 2. jÅ«s est, with substantive clause, 297, 3. jussÅ«, 57, 1; ---- the abl., 219, 2. Jussive subjv., 275; ---- equiv. to a protasis, 305, 2. juvat, w. acc., 172, 2, c); ---- with inf., 327, 1. JuvenÄle, abl., 70, 5, b. juvenis, a cons. stem, 38, 2; ---- comparison, 73, 4. juvÅ, with acc., 187, II, N. jÅ«xtÄ, prep. w. acc., 141.

K.

k, 1, 1. Knowing, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I. Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 204.

L.

l, pron., 3, 3. Labial mutes, 2, 4. ---- stems, 31; ---- ---- gender of, 43, 3; 46, 1. lacer, decl., 65, 1. lacus, decl., 49, 3. laedÅ, w. acc., 187, II, N. laetus, w. adverbial force, 239. lapis, decl., 33. largior, 113. Latin period, 351, 5. Length of syllables, 5, B. Length of vowels, 5, A. -lentus, suffix, 151, 3. leÅ, decl., 35. LÄ«ber, decl, 23, 2. lÄ«ber, adj., decl., 65, 1. lÄ«berÅ, constr., 214, 1, N. 1. lÄ«berta, lÄ«bertÄbus, 21, 2, e). liberum, gen. plu., 25, 6, c). licet, with subjv., 295, 6 and 8; 308, a; ---- with inf., 327, 1; 330. licet, adversative, 309, 4. Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 192, 1. Limit of motion, acc. of., 182. Lingual mutes, 2, 4. linter, decl., 40. Liquids, 2, 5. ---- stems, 34. lÄ«s, decl., 40, 1, d). Litotes, 375, 1. littera, litterae, 61. Locative, 17, 1; ---- in -ae, 21, 2, c); ---- in -i, 25, 5; ---- syntax, 232; ---- apposition with, 169, 4; ---- loc. uses of abl., 213; 228 f. locÅ, locÄ«s, the abl., 228, 1, b. locus, plurals of, 60, 2. Long syllables, 5, B, 1. ---- vowels, 5, A, 1. longius = longius quam, 271, 3. longum est = Eng. potential, 217, 1, b. lubet, lubÄ«dÅ, spelling, 9, 1. lÅ«dÄ«s, the abl., 230, 1. -lus, -la, -lum, diminutives in, 148, 1. lÅ«x, 57, 7.

M.

m, pron., 3, 3; ---- changed to n before d, c, 8, 5, c; ---- m-stem, 35, footnote 13; ---- m-final in poetry, 366, 10. maereÅ, w. acc., 175, 2, b. magis, comparison, 77, 1; ---- comparison with, 74. magnÄ«, gen. of value, 203, 3. magnopere, compared, 77, 1. magnus, compared, 72. Making, verbs of, w. two accusatives, 177. male, comparison, 77, 1. maledÄ«cÄ“ns, comparison, 71, 5, a). mÄlim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a. mÄllem, potential subjv., 280, 4. mÄlÅ, 130; ---- with inf., 331, IV, and a; ---- with subjv., 296, 1, a. malus, comparison, 72. mÄne, indeclinable, 58. Manner, abl. of, 200. mare, decl., 39, 2; ---- marÄ«, 228, 1, c). mÄs, decl., 40, 1, d). Masculine, see Gender. Masculine caesura, 368, 3, c. Material, abl. of, 224, 3. mÄteriÄ“s, mÄteria, 59, 2, a). mÄtÅ«rÄ“, compared, 77, 1. mÄtÅ«rus, compared, 71, 3. maximÄ“, adjs. compared with, 74. maximÄ«, as gen. of value, 203, 3. maxumus, 9, 1. Means, abl. of, 218; ---- abl. abs. denoting, 227, 2; ---- denoted by partic., 337, 2, d. mÄ“d, for mÄ“, 84, 3. Mediae (consonants), 2, 3, b), footnote 5. medius, 'middle of', 241, 1. meÄ«, as objective gen., 242, 2. melior, comparison, 72. melius est = Eng. potential, 271, 1, b). memini, 133; ---- constr., 206, 1, a; 2, a. memor, decl., 70, 2. -men, -mentum, suffixes, 147, 4. mÄ“nsis, 38, 2, footnote 14. mentem (in mentem venÄ«re), 206, 3. -met, enclitic, 6, 3; 84, 2. Metrical close of sent., 350, 12. metuÅ, w. subjv., 296, 2. mÄ«, dat., 84, 1. mÄ«, voc. of meus, 86, 2. Middle voice, verbs in, 175, 2, d). mÄ«les, decl., 33. mÄ«litiae, locative, 232, 2. mÄ«lle, mÄ«lia, decl., 80, 5. minimÄ“, comparison, 77, 1; ---- in answers, 162, 5, b). minimus, comparison, 72. minor, comparison, 72. minÅris, gen. of value, 203, 3; ---- of price, 203, 4. minus, comparison 77, 1; ---- = minus quam, 217, 3; ---- quÅ minus, 295, 3; ---- sÄ« minus, 306, 2 and a. mÄ«ror, conj., 113. mÄ«rus, comparison, 75, 2. miscÄ“re, with abl., 222A; ---- with dat., 358, 3. misereor, with gen., 209, 2. miserÄ“scÅ, with gen., 209, 2. miseret, constr., 209. Mixed stems, 40. modium, gen. plu., 25, 6, a). modo, in wishes and provisos, 310. moneÅ, 103; ---- constr., 178, 1, d). months, gender of names of, 15, 1; ---- decl. 68, 1; ---- abl., of month names, 70, 5, a); ---- names, 371, 1. Moods, 94, 2. ---- in independent sentences, 271 f. ---- in dependent clauses, 282 f. Mora, 366, 1. morior, conj. 109, 2, c); mÅs, decl., 36; ---- mÅrÄ“s, 61. mÅs est, with subjv. clause, 297, 3. muliebre secus, constr., 185, 1. Multiplication, distributives used to indicate, 81, 4, c. multum, 77, 3; ---- compared, 77, 1. multus, compared, 72; ---- with another adj., 241, 3. mÅ«s decl., 40, 1, d). mÅ«tÄre, with abl., 222A. Mutes, 2, 3. Mute stems, 30.

N.

n, pronunciation, 3, 3; ---- n-stems, 35. n adulterÄ«num, 2, 6. -nam, appended to quis, 90, 2, d. Names, Roman, 373. Naming, verbs of, w. two accusatives, 117, 1. Nasals, 2, 6. Nasal stems, 35. nÄtÅ«, 57, 1; ---- maximus nÄtÅ«, minimus nÄtÅ«, 73, 4, footnotes 20, 21; 226, 1. Natural gender, 14. nÄtus, constr., 215. nÄvis, decl., 41, 4. nd, vowel short before, 5, 2, a. -ne, 6, 3 f; 162, 2, c); 300, 1, b); ---- -ne ... an, 162, 4; ---- ---- in indir. double questions, 300, 4. nÄ“, in prohibitions, 276; ---- with hortatory subjv., 274; ---- with concessive, 278; ---- with optative, 279; ---- in purpose clauses, 282; ---- in substantive clauses, 295 f., 296; ---- in provisos, 310. nÄ“, 'lest,' 282, 1; 296, 2. nÄ“ nÅn for ut after verbs of fearing, 296, 2, a. nÄ“ ... quidem, 347, 1; 2. Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 192, 1. nec, 341, 1, d); ---- nec Å«squam, 341, 2, d). necesse est, w. subjv., 295, 8. necne, in double questions, 162, 4. nefÄs, indeclinable, 58. Negatives, 347, 2; ---- two negatives strengthening the negation, 347, 2. nÄ“mÅ, defective, 57, 3; ---- use, 252, 6. nÄ“quam, indeclinable, 70, 6; ---- compared, 72. neque, 341, 1, d); ---- neque in purpose clauses, 282, 1, e. nequeÅ, conj., 137, 1. ne quis, use, 91, 5. nÄ“quiter, compared, 77, 1. nesciÅ an, 300, 5. nesciÅ quis, as indef. pron., 253, 6. Neuter, see Gender. neuter, decl., 66; ---- use, 92, 1. nÄ“ve (neu), in purpose clauses, 282, 1, d. nf, quantity of vowel before, 5, 1, a. nihil, indeclinable, 58. nihil est cÅ«r, quÄ«n, 295, 7. ningit, 'it snows,' 138, 1. nisi, 306, 1 and 4. nisi forte, 306, 5. nisi sÄ«, 306, 5. nisi vÄ“rÅ, 306, 5. nÄ«tor, constr., 218, 3. nix, decl., 40, 1, d). No, in answers, 162, 5, b. -nÅ, class of verbs, 117, 4. nÅlÄ«, with inf., in prohibitions, 276, b. nÅlim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a. nÅllem, potential subjv., 280, 4. nÅlÅ, 130; ---- with inf., 331, IV and a; 276, 2, a; ---- with subjv., 296, 1, a. nÅmen, decl., 35; ---- nÅmen est, constr., 190, 1; ---- nÅmen, as part of Roman name, 373. Nominative, 17; 170; ---- used for voc., 171, 1; ---- nom. sing. lacking, 57, 6; ---- pred. nom., 168. Nones, 371, 2, b). nÅn, in answers, 162, 5, b); ---- with poten. subjv., 280; ---- with deliberative, 277. nÅn dubitÅ quÄ«n, with subjv., 298; ---- nÅn dubitÅ, w. inf., 298, a; b. nÅn modo for nÅn modo nÅn, 343, 2, a. nÅnne, 162, 2, a); 300, 1, b), N. nÅn quia, with ind., 286, 1, c; ---- with subjv., 286, 1, b. nÅn quÄ«n, with sujbv., 286, 1, b. nÅn quod, with ind., 286, 1, c; ---- with subjv., 286, 1, b. nÅs = ego, 242, 3. nostri, as objective gen., 242, 2. nostrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; ---- as possessive gen., 242, 2, a. Nouns, 12 ff.; 353; ---- derivation of, 147 f. ---- in -is not always Ä-stems, 38, 1. ---- of agency, force, 353, 4. ---- used in plu. only, 56. ---- used in sing. only, 55. ---- used only in certain cases, 57. ---- indeclinable, 58. ---- with change of meaning in plural, 61. ---- syntax, 166 f. ---- predicate, agreement of, etc., 167 f. ---- appositives, agreement of, etc., 169 f. Noun and adj. forms of the verb, 95, 2. nÅvÄ«, as pres., 262, A. novus, compared, 73, 3. ns, quantity of vowel before, 5, 1, a. -ns, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, c). nt, quantity of vowel before, 5, 2, a. nÅ«bÄ“s, decl., 40, 1, a nÅ«lla causa est cÅ«r, quÄ«n, 295, 7. nÅ«llus, decl., 66; 57, 3; ---- use, 92, 1. num, 162, 2, b); 300, 1, b). Number, 16; 94, 4. Numerals, 78 f.; ---- peculiarities in use of, 81. numquis, decl., 91, 5. nÅ«per, compared, 77, 1. -nus, suffix, 151, 2.

O.

Å, vowel, 2, 1; ---- as element in dipthong Å“, 2, 1; ---- pron., 3, 1; ---- alternating w. Å in certain classes of words, 9, 1; 2; 4; ---- Å-stems, 23; 24; ---- in citÅ, 77, 2, a; ---- in duÅ, 80, 2; ---- in egÅ, 84; 363, 4, a; ---- in modÅ, 363, 4, a; ---- in compounds of pro-, 363, 4, c; ---- in amÅ, leÅ, etc., 363, 4, b. Å, pron. 3, 1; ---- for au, 7, 1, e; ---- by contraction, 7, 2; ---- in abl. sing. of 2d decl., 23; ---- in nom. sing. of 3d decl., 35; ---- in Greek nouns, 47, 8; ---- in adverbs, 77, 2; ---- in ambÅ, 80, 2, a; ---- in personal endings, 96. ob, prep. w. acc., 141; ---- verbs compounded w. governing dat., 187, III. Obeying, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. Object, direct, 172 f.; ---- two objects w. same verb, 177; 178; ---- indirect, 187 f.; ---- inf. as obj., 326; 328; 329; 331. Objective gen., 200. Obligation, verb in expression of, 304, 3, a; ---- see also Duty. Oblique cases, 71, 2. oblÄ«vÄ«scor, constr., 206, 1, b; 2. octÅdecim (for duodÄ“vÄ«gintÄ«), 81, 2. ÅdÄ«, 133. oe, 2, 1; ---- pron., 3, 2. Old forms, familiÄs, 21, 2, a; ---- aulÄÄ«, 21, 2, b; ---- servos, aevom, equos, etc., 24; ---- mÄ“d, tÄ“d, 84, 3; ---- sÄ“d, 85, 3. olle, archaic for ille, 87. -olus (a, um), 148, 1. -om, later -um in 2d decl., 23. -on, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27. OnomatopÅ“ia, 375, 4. opera, operae, 61. Operations of nature, impersonal verbs expressing, 138, 1. opÄ«niÅne with comparatives, 217, 4. opis, 57, 6; ---- opÄ“s, 61. oportet, 138; ---- w. subjv., 295, 6; 8; ---- w. inf., 327, 330. oportuit, with pres. inf. 'ought to have', 270, 2; ---- with perf. inf., 270, 2, a. oppidum (Genavam ad oppidum), 182, 2, a. Optative subjv., 272; 279; ---- substantive clauses developed from, 296. optimÄtÄ“s, decl., 40, 1, d. optimus, comp., 72. optÅ, w. subst. cl. developed from optative, 296, 1. optumus, spelling, 9, 1. opus est, w. abl., 218, 2; ---- w. partic., 218, 2, c. -or, nouns in, 34; ---- -or for -os, 36; ---- gender of nouns in, 43, 1; ---- exceptions in gender, 44, 2; ---- as suffix, 147, 2. Oratio Obliqua, 313 f. Order of words, 348 f. Ordinals, 78, 1; 79. orior, conjugation, 123, VII. oriundus, constr., 215, 2. ÅrÅ, with acc., 178, 1, a Orpheus, decl., 47, 6. Orthography, peculiarities, 9. ortus, constr., 215. Ås, decl., 57, 7. os, decl., 42. -os, later -us in 2d decl., 23. -Ås, later -or in 3d decl., 36, 1. ---- -Ås, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27. -Åsus, form of suffix, 151, 3. ovis, decl., 38, 1. Oxymoron, 375, 2.

P.

p, pron., 3, 3; ---- by assimilation, 8, 4; ---- by partial assimilation, 8, 5. paenitet, 138, II; ---- with gen., 209 palam, as prep. w. abl., 144, 2. Palatal mutes, 2, 4. palÅ«ster, decl., 68, 1. Parasitic vowels, 7, 3. parÄtus, with infin., 333. Pardon, verbs signifying, w. dat., 187, II. pariÅ, 109, 2, a). pars, partÄ“s, 61. parte, abl. of place, 228, 1, b. partem, adverbially used, 185, 1. Participation, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, 1. Participial stem, 97, III; ---- formation, 119. Participles, in -Äns and -Ä“ns, 70, 3; ---- gen. plu. of in -um, 70, 7; ---- pres. act. partic., 97, I, 5; 101; 103; 105; 107; 110; 113; ---- fut. act. partic., 97, III; ---- as one of the principal parts of the verb, 99, footnote 28; 100; 101; 103; 105; 107; 110; 113; ---- perf. pass. partic., 97, III; 102; 104; 106; 108; 111; 113;; ---- gerundive, see Gerundive; ---- fut. act., peculiar formation of, 119, 4; ---- perf. pass., w. act. or neuter meaning, 114, 2; ---- of deponents, 112, b; ---- syntax, 336 ff. Participles, fut. act., 119, 4; ---- ---- denoting purpose, 337, 4. ---- perf. act., how supplied, 356, 2. ---- perf. pass. 336, 3; ---- ---- as pres., 336, 5. ---- pres. partic., 336, 2; ---- ---- with conative force, 336, 2, a. ---- perf. pass., with active meaning, 114, 2; ---- pred. use of partic., 337, 2; ---- participles equivalent to subordinate clauses, 337, 2; ---- ---- to coÃ¶rdinate clauses, 337, 5; ---- w. opus est, 218, 2, c; ---- with noun, equivalent to abstract noun, 337, 6; ---- with habeÅ, 337, 7. ---- with videÅ, audiÅ, faciÅ, etc., 337, 3. Particles, 139 f.; 341 f. Partitive apposition, 169, 5. Partitive gen., so called, 201. Parts of speech, 10. parum, comparison, 77, 1. parvÄ«, gen. of value, 203, 3. parvus, comparison, 72. Passive, verbs in, with middle meaning, 175, 2, d; 256; ---- verbs governing dat. used in pass. only impersonally, 187, II, b; ---- constr. of passive verbs of saying, etc., 332 and note; ---- how supplied when missing, 356, 1. patior, conj., 109, 2, c; 113; ---- with inf., 331, III. Patrial adjs., 70, 5, c. Patronymics, 148, 6. paulum, formation, 77, 3. paulus, spelling, 9, 2. pauper, decl.,, 70, 1. pedester, decl., 68, 1. pejor, quantity of first syllable, 362, 5. pelagus, gender of, 26, 2. Penalty, abl. of, 208, 2, b. penÄtÄ“s, decl., 40, 1, d). penes, prep. w. acc., 141. Pentameter, dactylic, 369. Penult, 6, 2. per, prep. w. acc., 141; ---- with acc. of time and space, 181, 2. Perceiving, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I. Perfect active ptc., how supplied in Latin, 356, 2. Perfect pass. partic., force of w. deponent verbs, 112, b; ---- dat. of agency sometimes used w., 189, 2; ---- opus, 218, 2, c. Perfect stem, 97, II; ---- ---- formation, 118. ---- in -ÄvÄ«, -Ä“vÄ«, -Ä«vÄ« contracted, 116, 1. ---- historical perf., 262. ---- with force of pres. 262; 133, 2; ---- pres. perf. and hist. perf. distinguished, 237, 1 and 2; ---- gnomic perf., 262, 1; ---- perf. subjv. as historical tense, 268, 6 and 7, b; ---- perf. inf. w. oportuit, 270, 2; ---- perf. prohibitive, 279, a; ---- perf. potential, 280, 1 and 2; ---- perf. concessive, 278; ---- sequence of tenses after perf. inf., 268, 2. Periodic structure, 351, 5. Periphrastic conj., 115; 269, 3; ---- in conditional sentences of the 3d type, 304, 3, b); ---- in indir. disc., 322; ---- in passive, 337, 8, b, 1. ---- fut. inf., 270, 3. Persons, 95, 4; ---- 2d sing, of indefinite subject, 356, 3. Personal pronouns 84; 242; ---- ---- as subject, omission of, 166, 2; ---- ---- as objective genitives, 242, 2. ---- endings, 96. persuÄdeÅ, with dat., 187, II, a; ---- with subjv., 295, 1. Persuading, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. ph, 2, 3, c; 2, 4; 3, 3. piget, with gen., 209. Pity, verbs of, w. gen., 209, 1 and 2. Place to which, 182; ---- whence, 229; ---- place where, 228. placitus, force, 114, 2. Pleasing, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II, a; ---- w. acc., 187, II, a, N. plÄ“bÄ“s, heteroclite, 59, 2, d). plÄ“bi, gen., 52, 2. Plenty and Want, verbs of, constr., 212; cf. 218, 8. plÄ“nus, w. gen., 218, 8, a. Pleonasm, 374, 3. plÄ“rÃ¡que, 6, 5. pluit, 138, I. Pluperfect tense, formation, 100; ---- syntax, 263; 265; 287, 2; 288, 3; ---- with imperfect meaning, 133, 2. Plural, 16; ---- in 5th decl., 52, 4; ---- of proper names, 55, 4, a); ---- of abstract nouns, 5, 4, c); ---- nouns used in, only, 56; ---- with change of meaning, 61; ---- stylistic use, 353, 1, 2. Pluralia tantum, 56; 81, 4, b). plÅ«ris, gen. of value, 203, 3; ---- of price, 203, 4. plÅ«s, decl., 70; 70, 4; ---- = plÅ«s quam, 217, 3. poÄ“ma, decl., 47, 5. Polysyndeton, 341, 4, b). por-, inseparable prep., 159, 3, e. porticus, gender, 50. portus, decl., 49, 3. poscÅ, constr., 178, 1, a). Position of clauses, 351, 3. ---- of words, 348; 350; 351. Possessive dat., 190; ---- gen., 198; ---- ---- contrasted with dat. of poss., 359, 1. Possessive pronouns, 86, 243; ---- = objective gen., 243, 2; ---- position of, 243, 1, a. Possibility, verbs of, put in indic. in cond. sentences, 304, 3, a. possum, 126; ---- with present infin., 'I might,' 271, 1, a; ---- in cond. sentences, 304, 3, a. post, prep. w. acc., 144, 1; ---- in expressions of time, 357, 1. Post-positive words, 343, 1, c). posteÄquam, 287; ---- separated, 287, 3; ---- with imperf. ind., 287, 4; ---- w. pluperf. ind., 287, 3; ---- with subjv., 287, 5. posterus, posterior, comp., 73, 2. postrÄ“mus, use, 241, 2. postrÄ«diÄ“, with gen., 201, 3, a. postulÅ, constr., 178, 1, a. Potential subjv., 272; 280. potior, with gen., 212, 2; ---- with abl., 218, 1; ---- in gerundive constr., 339, 4. ---- adj., 73, 1. potius, compared, 77, 1. potuÄ«, poteram, in apodosis of conditional sent. of 3d type, 304, 3, a); ---- in indir. disc., 322, c. potuÄ«, with pres. inf. = 'could have,' 270, 2. potuerim, in dependent apodosis, 322, c. pÅtus, force, 114, 2. prae, prep, w. abl., 142; ---- verbs compounded with governing dat., 187, III; ---- short in praeacÅ«tus, etc., 362, 2. PraenÅmen, 373. praesÄ“ns, 125. praesum, w. dat., 187, III. prÄnsus, force, 114, 2. precÄ«, -em, -e, 57, 5, a. Predicate, 163. ---- gen., 198, 3; 203, 5. Predicate nouns, 167; 168; ---- in acc., 177; ---- predicate nouns or adjs. attracted to dat., 327, 2, a; ---- ---- to nom., 328, 2. ---- adjectives, 232, 2; 177, 2. Prepositions, assimilation of, in compounds, 8, 4; 9, 2; ---- with acc., 141; ---- with abl., 142; ---- as adverbs, 144; ---- inseparable prepositions, 159, 3, N.; ---- position, 350, 7; ---- prepositional phrases as attributive modifiers, 353, 5; ---- anastrophe of, 144, 3; 141, 2; 142, 3; ---- usage with abl. of sep., 214 f; ---- with abl. of source, 215. Present tense, 259; ---- gnomic, 259, 1; ---- conative, 259, 2; ---- historical, 259, 3; ---- with jam prÄ«dem, jam diÅ«, etc., 259, 4; ---- with dum, 'while,' 293, I; ---- in RepraesentÄtiÅ, 318; ---- pres. subjv., in -im, 127, 2; ---- pres. partic., see Participle. ---- stem, 97, I; ---- ---- formation, 117. ---- perf., 257, 1 and 2. Preventing, verbs of, w. subjv. clause, 295, 3. Price, indefinite, special words in gen. 203, 4; also 225, 1. ---- abl. of, 225. prÄ«diÄ“, with gen., 201, 3, a; ---- with acc., 144, 2. Primary tenses, see Principal tenses. prÄ«mus, 'first who,' 241, 2. prÄ«nceps, decl., 31. Principal parts, 99; ---- list, p. 251. ---- tenses, 258 f. prior, compared, 73, 1. prius, compared, 77, 1. priusquam, with ind., 291; ---- with subjv., 292; ---- separated, 292. Privation, verbs of, w. abl., 214, 1, b and c. prÅ, prep. w. abl., 142. procul, as prep. w. abl., 144, 2. prohibeÅ, w. abl., 214, 2; ---- w. subjv. clause, 295, 3. Prohibitions, method of expressing, 276. Prohibitive subjv., 276. Prolepsis, 374, 5. Pronominal adjs., 253. Pronouns, defined, 82; ---- classes, 83; ---- personal, 84; ---- reflexive, 85; ---- possessive, 86; ---- demonstrative, 87; ---- intensive, 88; ---- relative, 89; ---- interrogative, 90; ---- indefinite, 91; ---- pronominal adjs., 92; ---- personal, omission of, as subject, 166, 2; ---- syntax, 242 f.; ---- ---- personal, 242 f.; ---- ---- possess., 243 f.; ---- ---- reflex., 244 f.; ---- ---- reciprocal, 245 f.; ---- ---- demonstrative, 246 f.; ---- ---- relative, 250 f.; ---- ---- indef., 252 f.; ---- position, 350, 5; 355. Pronunciation, Roman, 3. prope, compared, 77, 1. Proper names, abbreviated, 373. ---- nouns, 12, 1. propior, compared, 73, 1; ---- with acc., 141, 3. proprius, with dat., 204, 2, a; ---- with gen., 204, 2. propter, prep. w. acc., 141. Prosody, 360 f. prÅsper, decl., 65, 1. prÅsum, conj., 125, N. Protasis, 301; ---- denoting repeated action, 302, 3; ---- without sÄ«, 305; ---- of indef. 2d sing., 302, 2; ---- see Conditions. Provisos, 310. proximÄ“, -us, comp., 73, 1; 77, 1; ---- with acc., 141, 3. prÅ«dÄ“ns, decl., 70. -pte, 86, 3. pudet, with gen, 209; ---- w. inf., 327, 1. puer, decl., 23. pulcher, comp., 71, 3. puppis, decl., 38, 1. Purpose, dat. of purpose, 191; ---- with dat. and gerundive, 191, 3; ---- w. ad and acc., 192, 2; ---- subjv. of purp., 282, 1; ---- ---- w. quÅ, 282, 1, a; ---- ---- w. ut nÄ“, 282, 1, b; ---- ---- with nÅn in purpose clause, 282, 1, c; ---- ---- nÄ“ve (neu) in purpose clauses, 292, 1, d; ---- ---- neque, 282, 1, e; ---- rel. clauses of purpose, 282, 2; ---- ---- w. dignus, indignus, idÅneus, 282, 3; ---- independent of principal verb, 282, 4; ---- inf., denoting purpose, 326, N.; ---- fut. partic., denoting purpose, 337, 4; ---- gerund, w. ad, 338, 3; ---- gerundive, 339, 2; ---- supine, 340.

Q.

qu, pron., 3, 3; ---- both letters consonants, 74, a. quaerÅ, w. indir. questions, 300, 1, b), N. quaesÅ, 137, 2. Quality, gen., 203; ---- abl., 224. quam, in comparisons, 217, 2; ---- with superl., 240, 3; ---- ante ... quam, post ... quam, prius ... quam, see antequam, postquam, priusquam; quam quÄ«, 283, 2, a. quam sÄ«, 307, 1. quam ut, with subjv., 284, 4. quamquam, with ind., 309, 2; ---- with subjv., 309, 6; ---- = 'and yet,' 309, 5. quamvÄ«s, with subjv., 309, 1; 6; ---- denoting a fact, 309, 6. quandÅ, 286, 3, b. quantÄ«, as gen. of price, 203, 4; ---- of value, 203, 3. Quantity, 5. ---- of syllables, 5, B; 363 f. ---- of vowels, 5, A; 362; ---- ---- in Greek words, 365. quasi, 307, 1. quatiÅ, conj., 109, 2, a). -que, accent of word preceding, 6, 3; 6, 5; 341, 1, b); 2, a); 4, c). queÅ, 137, 1. Questions, word, sentence, 162 f.; ---- rhetorical, 162, 3; ---- double (alternative), 162, 4; ---- indirect, 300; ---- questions in indir. disc., 315. quÄ«, rel., 89; ---- interr., 90; ---- indef., 91; ---- for quis in indir. questions, 90, 2, b; ---- with nÄ“, sÄ«, nisi, num, 91, 5; ---- in purpose clauses, 282, 2; ---- abl., 90, 2, a. quia, in causal clauses, 286, 1. quÄ«cum, 89. quÄ«cumque, decl., 91, 8. quÄ«dam, decl, 91; syntax, 252, 3. quidem, post-positive, 347, 1. quÄ«libet, decl., 91, quÄ«n, in result clauses, 284, 3; ---- in substantive clauses, 295, 3; 298; ---- = quÄ« nÅn in clauses of characteristic, 283, 4; ---- with ind., 281, 3; ---- in indir. disc, 322 and a; ---- nÅ«lla causa est quÄ«n, 295, 7. quÄ«nam, 90, 2, d. QuÄ«ntÄ«lis (= JÅ«lius), 371. quÄ«ppe quÄ«, in clauses of characteristic, 283, 3. QuirÄ«tÄ“s, decl., 40, 1, d. quis, indef., 91; ---- interr., 90; 90, 2, c.; 252, 1; ---- nesciÅ quis, 253, 6; ---- with nÄ“, sÄ«, nisi, num, 91, 5. quis est quÄ«, 283, 2. quÄ«s = quibus, 89. quisnam, inflection, 90, 2, d. quispiam, inflection, 91. quisquam, inflection, 91; ---- usage, 252, 4. quisque, inflection, 91; ---- usage, 252, 5. quisquis, inflection, 91, 8. quÄ«vÄ«s, inflection, 91 quÅ, in purpose clauses, 282, 1, a.. quoad, with ind., 293; ---- with subjv. 293, III, 2. quod, in causal clauses, 286, 1; ---- in substantive clauses, 299; 331, V, a; ---- 'as regards the fact,' 299, 2. quod audierim, 283, 5; ---- quod sciam, 283, 5. quod (sÄ«), adverbial acc., 185, 2. quom, early form of cum, 9, 1. quÅ minus, after verbs of hindering, 295, 3. quoniam, in causal clauses, 286, 1. quoque, post-positive, 347. -quus, decl. of nouns in, 24.

R.

r, pron., 3, 3; ---- for s between vowels ('Rhotacism'), 8, 1. rapiÅ, conj., 100, 2 a). rÄstrum, plurals of, 60, 2. ratus, 'thinking,' 336, 5. Reciprocal pronouns, 85, 2; 245; cf. 253, 3. Reduplication in perf., 118, 4, a); ---- in pres., 117, 7. Reference, dat. of, 188. rÄ“fert, constr., 210; 211, 4. Reflexive pronouns, 85; 244; 249, 3. regÅ, conj., 105. Regular verbs, 101-113. rÄ•i, 362, 1, b). reiciÅ, quantity, 362, 5. Relative adverbs, in rel. clauses of purp., 282, 2. ---- clauses, of purp., 282, 2; ---- ---- w. dignus, indignus, idÅneus, 282, 3; ---- ---- of characteristic, 283; ---- ---- denoting cause or opposition, 283, 3; ---- ---- restrictive, 283, 5; ---- ---- introduced by quÄ«n, 283, 4; 284, 3; ---- ---- conditional rel. clauses, 311; 312, 1 and 2; ---- ---- relative as subj. of inf., 314, 4; ---- ---- rel. clause standing first, 251, 4, a. ---- pronouns, inflection, 89; ---- ---- use, 250, ff.; ---- ---- = Eng. demonstrative, 251, 6; ---- ---- agreement, 250; ---- ---- not omitted as in Eng., 251, 5; ---- ---- fondness for subordinate clauses, 355. relinquitur ut, 297, 2. reliquÄ«, use, 253, 5. reliquum est, with subjv., 295, 6. rÄ“mex, decl., 32. Remembering, verbs of, cases used w., 206. Reminding, verbs of, const., 207. reminÄ«scor, constr., 206, 2. Removing, verbs of, w. abl., 214, 2. reposcÅ, constr., 178, 1, a). RepraesentÄtiÅ, 318. requiÄ“s, requiem, requiÄ“tem, 59, 2, c). rÄ“s, decl., 51. Resisting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. Restrictive clauses, 283, 5. Result, acc. of, 173, B; 176; ---- clauses of, 284; 297; ---- ---- in dependent apodosis, 322, and a; ---- ---- sequence of tense in, 268, 6. revertor, semi-deponent, 114, 3. Rhetorical questions, 162, 3; 277, a; ---- in indir. disc., 315, 2. Rhotacism, 8, 1; 36, 1. Rivers, gender of names of, 15, A, 1. rogÄtÅ«, abl. of cause, 219, 2. rogÅ, constr., 178, 1, c); 178, 1, a). Roman pronunciation, 3. Root, 17, 3, footnote 12. -rs, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, c). rÅ«re, abl., place from which, 229, 1, b. rÅ«rÄ«, abl., place in which, 228, 1, c. rÅ«s, 57, 7; ---- acc., limit of motion, 182, 1, b.

S.

s, pron., 3, 3; ---- changed to r between vowels, 8, 1: ---- s, ss from dt, tt, ts, 8, 2. -s, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more consonants, 40, 1, b). s-stems, 36. sacer, decl., 65; ---- comparison, 73, 3. saepe, compared, 77, 1. sÄl, 57, 7; ---- sÄƒlÄ“s, 61. salÅ«bris, decl., 68, 3. salÅ«tÄris, comp., 73, 4. salvÄ“, salvÄ“te, 137, 4. SamnÄtÄ“s, 40, 1, d). sÄnÄ“, in answers, 162, 5. sapiÅ, conj., 109, 2, a). satur, decl., 65, 2. Saying, verbs of, w. inf. of ind. disc., 331, I. sciÅ, quod sciam, 283, 5. -scÅ-class of verbs, 117, 6; 155. scrÄ«bere ad alÄ«quem, 358, 2. sÄ“, use, 244. sÄ“-, compounds of, 159, 3, e. Second conj., 103; ---- decl., 23; ---- peculiarities, 25; ---- second person indefinite, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302, 2. Secondary tenses, see Historical tenses. secundum, prep. w. acc., 141. secÅ«ris, decl., 38, 1. secus, compared, 77, 1. secus (virÄ«le secus), 185, 1; 58. secÅ«tus, 'following', 336, 5. sed, sÄ“, 85, 3. sÄ“d-, compounds of, 159, 3, e. sÄ“d, 343, 1, a). sedÄ«le, decl., 39. sÄ“mentis, decl., 38, 1. Semi-deponent verbs, 114. Semivowels, 2, 8. senex, decl., 42; ---- compared, 73, 4. Sentences, classification, 160, f.; ---- simple and compound, 164; ---- sentence-structure, 351; ---- sentence questions, 162, 2. sententiÄ, abl. of accordance, 220, 3. Separation, dat. of, 188, 2, d); ---- gen., 212, 3; ---- abl., 214. Sequence of tenses, 267; 268. sequester, decl., 68, 1. sequitur ut, 297, 2. sequor, conj., 113. Serving, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. servos, decl., 24. sÄ“sÄ“, decl., 85. SextÄ«lis (= Augustus), 371. Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, 1. Short syllables, 5, B, 2; ---- vowels, 5, A, 2. Showing, verbs of, w. two accs., 177. sÄ«, with indir. questions, 300, 3; ---- in protasis, 301; ---- omitted, 305. signifer, decl., 23, 2. silentiÅ, abl of manner, 220, 2. silvester, decl., 68, 3. similis, with dat., 204, 3; ---- with gen., 204, 3; ---- comp., 71, 4. sÄ« minus, use, 306, 2. Simple sentences, 164. simul, as prep., w. abl., 144, 2. simul ac, w. ind., 287, 1; 2. sÄ« nÅn, usage, 306, 1 and 2. sÄ«n, usage, 306, 3. sÄ«n minus, 306, 2, a. Singular, second person indefinite, 280, 3; 356, 3; 302, 2. sinÅ with inf., 331, III. sitis, decl., 38, 1. Smelling, verbs of, constr., 176, 5. Soft consonants, 2, 3, b), footnote 5. -sÅ, verbs in, 155, 2. socer, decl., 23, 2. socium, gen, plu., 25, 6, c). sÅl, decl., 57, 7. soleÅ, semi-dep., 114, 1. solitus, used as present partic., 336, 5. sÅlus, 66; ---- sÅlus est qui with subjv., 283, 2. Sonant consonants, 2, 3, b), footnote 5. SÅracte, decl., 39, 2. Sounds, classification, 2. ---- of the letters, 3. Source, abl., 215. Space, extent of, 181. Sparing, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. Specification, abl. of, 226. spÄ•Ä«, quantity, 362, 1, b. Spelling, see Orthography. Spirants, 2, 7. Spondaic verses, 368, 2. Spondee, 368, 1. sponte suÄ, abl. accordance, 220, 3. spontis, -e, defective, 57, 2, b. Statutes, fut. imperative used in, 281, 1, b. Stem, 17, 3. ---- verb, 97; 117. Structure of sentences, see Sentences. Style, hints on, 352 f. su = sv, 3, 3. sub, prep. with acc. and abl., 143; ---- compounds of, w. dat., 187, III. Subject, 163; ---- nom., 166; ---- acc., 184; ---- subject acc. of inf., 184; ---- omitted, 314, 5; ---- clauses as subject, 294; 295, 6; ---- inf. as subj., 327; 330. Subjective gen., 199. Subjunctive, tenses in, 95, 3. ---- in independent sentences, 272; ---- by attraction, 324; ---- tenses of, 266 f.; ---- method of expressing future time in, 269; ---- volitive (hortatory, jussive, probibitive, deliberative, concessive), 273 f.; ---- optative (wishes), 279; ---- potential, 280; ---- in clauses of purpose, 282; ---- of characteristic, 283; ---- of result, 284; ---- of cause, 286; ---- temporal clauses with postquam, posteÄquam, 287, 5; ---- temporal clauses with cum, 288-290; ---- with antequam and priusquam, 292; ---- with dum, dÅnec, quoad, 293, III, 2; ---- substantive clauses, 294 f.; ---- indir. questions, 300; ---- in apodosis of first type conditions, 302, 4; ---- jussive subjunctive as protasis of condition, 305, 2; ---- with velut, tamquam, etc., 307; ---- with necesse est, opportet, etc., 295, 6 and 8; ---- with licet, 309, 4; ---- with quamvÄ«s, quamquam, etsÄ«, cum 'although,' 309 f. sublÄtus, 129, N. subm- = summ-, 9, 2. Subordinate clauses, 165. Substantive clauses, 294 f.; ---- ---- developed from the volitive, 295, 1-8; ---- ---- developed from the optative, 296; ---- ---- with nÅn dubitÅ, 298; ---- ---- indir. questions, 300; ---- ---- without ut, 295, 8; ---- ---- of result, 297; ---- ---- introduced by quod, 299. ---- use of adjs., 236-238. subter, prep, w. acc., 143, 1. Suffixes, 17, 3, footnote 12; 147 f. suÄ«, 85; ---- as objective gen., 244, 2; ---- = possessive gen., 244, 2. sum, conj., 100; ---- omitted when auxiliary, 166, 3. summus, 'top of,' 241, 1. sunt quÄ«, with subjv., 283, 2. suÅpte, suÄpte, 86, 3. supellex, decl., 42, 2. super, prep. w. acc., 143, 1. Superlative degree; ---- of adjs., 71, 1; ---- ---- in -rimus, 91, 3; ---- ---- in -limus, 71, 4; ---- ---- irregular superl., 72; 73; ---- ---- lacking, 73, 4; ---- ---- formed w. maximÄ“, 74; ---- of adverbs, 76, 2; ---- ---- irregular, 77, 1; ---- force of, 240, 2. superus, compared, 73, 2. Supine, 340. suprÄ, prep. w. acc., 141. -sÅ«ra, suffix, 147, 3, a. Surd consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote 4. sÅ«s, decl., 41. sustulÄ«, 129, N. suus, decl., 86, 1; 244; ---- suus quisque, 244, 4, a. Syllaba anceps, 366, 10. Syllables, division, 4; ---- quantity of, 5, B. Synapheia, 367, 6. Synaeresis, 367, 1. Synchysis, 350, 11, d. Syncope, 7, 4; 367, 8. Synecdochical acc., 180. Synizesis, 367, 1. Syntax, 160 f. Systole, 367, 3.

T.

t, pron., 3, 3; ---- th, 2, 3, c; 3, 3; ---- changes, 8, 2; ---- dropped, 8, 3. taedet, 138, II; ---- w. gen., 209. Taking away, verbs of, w. dat., 188, 2, d. talentum, gen. plu., 25, 5, a. tamen, 343, 1, f. tametsÄ«, 309, 2. tamquam, tamquam sÄ«, w. subjv., 307. tantÅn, 6, 4. -tas, 149; ---- gen. -tÄtis, decl. of nouns in, 40, 1, e). Tasting, verbs of, constr., 176, 5. Teaching, verbs of, constr., 178, 1, b. tÄ“d = tÄ“, 84, 3. Temporal clauses, w. postquam, ut, ubi, simul ac, 287; ---- w. cum, 288; 289; ---- w. antequam and priusquam, 291; 292; ---- with dum, dÅnec, quoad, 293. temporis (id temporis), 185, 2. Tendency, dat. of, 191. tener, decl., 64. Tenses, 94, 3; 257 ff.; ---- of inf., 270; ---- of inf. in indir. disc., 317; ---- of participles, 336; ---- of subjv., 266; ---- sequence of, 266-268; ---- in indir. disc., 317; 318. Tenues (consonants), 2, 3, a), footnote 4. tenus, position, 142, 3. Terminations, 17, 3. ternÄ«, how used, 81, 4, b. -ternus, 154. terrÄ marÄ«que, 228, 1, c. terrester, 68, 3. Tetrameter verses, 366, 11. Thematic verbs, 101-113. ---- vowels, 117, footnote 39. Thesis, 366, 6. Third conj., 105; 109 f.; ---- decl., 28 f.; ---- gender in, 43 f. Threatening, verbs of, 187, II. -tim, adverbs in, 157, 2. Time, at which, 230; ---- during which, 181; 231, 1; ---- within which, 231. timeÅ nÄ“ and ut, 296, 2. -tinus, suffix, 154. -tiÅ, suffix, 147, 3. Tmesis, 367, 7. -to as suffix of verbs, 155, 2. -tor, use of nouns in, 353, 4. tÅtus, 66; ---- preposition absent w., in expression of place relations, 228, 1, b). Towns, gender of names of, 15, 2; ---- names of, denoting limit of motion, 182, 1, a; ---- denoting place where, 228, 1, a; ---- place from which, 229, 1, a; ---- appositives of town names, 169, 4; 229, 2. trÄditur, trÄditum est, w. inf., 332, N. trÄns, prep, w. acc., 141; ---- constr. of verbs compounded with, 179. Transitive verbs, 174. Trees, gender of names of, 15, 2. trÄ“s, decl., 80, 3. Tribrach, 370, 2. tribus, decl., 49, 3; ---- gender, 50. Trimeter verses, 366, 11. trÄ«nÄ«, use, 81, 4, b). triumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, b). -trÄ«x, suffix, 147, 1. Trochee, 366, 2. -trum, suffix, 147, 4. Trusting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II. tÅ«, decl., 84. -tÅ«dÅ, suffix, 84. tuÄ«, as objective gen., 242, 2. -tÅ«ra, suffix, 147, 3, a). tÅ«s, decl., 57, 7. -tus, suffix, 147, 3; 151, 4. tussis, decl., 38. tÅ«te, tÅ«temet, tÅ«timet, 84, 2. Two accusatives, 177; 178. Two datives, 191, 2.

U.

u, instead of i in some words, 9, 1; ---- instead of a, 9, 1; 9, 4. u, becomes v 367, 4. Å-stems, 48. Å«-stems, 41. -Å«, dat. sing., 4th decl, 49, 2. Å«ber, decl., 70, 1. ubi, with ind., 287, 1; 2; ---- with gen., 201, 3. -ubus, dat., plu., 4th decl., 49, 3. Å«llus, decl., 66. ulterior, compared, 73, 1. ultimus, use, 241, 2. ultrÄ, prep. w. acc., 141. -ulus, diminutive ending, 150, 2; ---- (a, um), 148, 1. -um, 1st decl., gen. plu. in, 21, 2, d); ---- 2d decl., 25, 6; ---- for -ium, 70, 7. -undus, -undÄ«, in gerund and gerundive, 116, 2. Å«nus, decl., 66; 92, 1; ---- Å«nus est qui, with subjv., 283, 2. -uriÅ, ending of desiderative verbs, 155, 3. -Å«rus, ending of fut. act. partic., 101; 103 ff.; ---- -Å«rus fuisse in apodosis of conditional sentences contrary-to-fact, in indir. disc., 321, 2; ---- -Å«rus fuerim in indir. questions serving as apodoses, 322, b. -us, neuter nouns of 2d decl. in, 26, 2; ---- nom. in 3d decl., in -us, 36; ---- gender of nouns in -us of 3d decl., 43, 3; ---- exceptions in gender, 46, 4. -Å«s, nouns of 3d decl. in, 43, 2. Å«sque ad, w. acc., 141, 1. Å«sus est, with abl., 218, 2. ut, temporal, 287, 1; 2; ---- ut, utÄ«, in purpose clauses, 282; ---- in result clauses, 284; ---- in substantive clauses, 295 f.; ---- substantive clauses without, 295, 8; ---- with verbs of fearing, 296, 2. ut nÄ“ = nÄ“, 282, 1, b; 295, 1, 4, 5. ut non instead of nÄ“, 282, 1, c; ---- in clauses of result, 284, 297. ut quÄ«, introducing clauses of characteristic, 283, 3. ut sÄ«, w. subjv., 307, 1. uter, decl., 66; 92, 1. Å«ter, decl., 40, 1, d). utercumque, decl., 92, 2. uterlibet, decl., 92, 2. uterque, decl., 92, 2; ---- use, 355, 2. utervÄ«s, decl., 92, 2. Å«tilius est = Eng. potential, 271, 1, b). utinam, with optative subjv., 279, 1 and 2. Å«tor, with abl., 218, 1; ---- in gerundive constr., 339, 4 utpote qui, introducing clauses of characteristic, 283, 3. utrÃ¡que, 6, 5. utrum ... an, 162, 4; 300, 4.

V.

v, 1, 1; ---- pron., 3, 3: ---- developing from u, 367, 4. v, becomes u, 367, 5. valdÄ“, by syncope, for validÄ“, 7, 4. valÄ•, 363, 2, b). Value, indefinite, in gen., 203, 3. vannus, gender of, 26, 1, b). Variations in spelling, 9. vÄs, decl., 59, 1. -ve, 6, 3; 342, 1, b). vel, 342, 1, b); ---- with superl., 240, 3. velim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a. vellem, potential subjv., 280, 4. velut, velut sÄ«, w. subjv., 307, 1. venter, decl., 40, 1, d). Verba sentiendÄ« et dÄ“clÄrandÄ«, w. inf. of indir. disc., 331, I; ---- passive use of these, 332. Verbal adjs., 150, 1-4. Verbs, 94 f.; ---- personal endings, 96; ---- deponent, 112; ---- archaic and poetic forms, 116, 4; ---- irregular, 124; ---- defective, 133; ---- impersonal, 138; ---- with substantive clauses of result, 297, 2; ---- omission of, 166, 3; ---- transitive, 174; ---- ---- used absolutely, 174, a; ---- passives used as middles, 175, 2, d); ---- of smelling and tasting, constr., 176, 5; ---- not used in passive, 177, 3, a; ---- intransitives impersonal in passive, 187, II, b; 256, 3; ---- compounded with preps., constr., 187, III; ---- of judicial action, constr., 208; ---- derivation of, 155 f.; ---- inceptive or inchoative, 155, 1; ---- frequentative or intensive, 155, 2; ---- desiderative, 155, 3; ---- denominative, 156; ---- agreement of, 254 f. Verb stems, 97; ---- formation of, 117 f. vereor, conj., 113; ---- with subst. clause in subjv., 296, 2. Vergilius, gen. of, 25, 1. veritus, with present force; 336, 5. vÄ“rÅ, 343, 1, g); ---- in answers, 162, 5. Verse, 366, 3. Verse-structure, 366 f. Versification, 361. versus, prep. w. acc., 141; ---- follows its case, 141, 2. vÄ“rum, 343, 1, b). vescor, with abl., 218, 1. vesper, decl., 23, 2. vesperÄ«, locative, 232, 2. vestrÄ«, as obj. gen., 242, 2. vestrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; ---- as possessive gen., 242, 2, a. vetÅ, with inf. 331, II. vetus, decl., 70; ---- compared, 73, 3. vÄ«, 220, 2. vicem, used adverbially, 185, 1; ---- vicis, vice, 57, 5, b. victor, decl., 34. videÅ, with pres. partic., 337, 3. vigil, decl., 34. violenter, formation, 77, 4, a. vir, decl., 23. ---- gen. plu. of nouns compounded with, 25, 6, b). virÄ«le seces, constr., 185, 1. vÄ«rus, gender of, 26, 2. vÄ«s, decl., 41. vÄ«scera, used in plu. only, 56, 3. Vocative case, 17; 19, 1; ---- of Greek proper names in -Äs, 47, 4; ---- of adjs. in -ius, 63, 1; 171; ---- in -Ä« for -ie, 25, 1; ---- position of, 350, 3. Voiced sounds, 2, 3, a). Voiced consonants, 2, 3, b). Voiceless consonants, 2, 3, a). Voices, 94; 256; ---- middle voice, 256, 1. Volitive subjunctive, 272 f. volnus, spelling, 9, 1. volÅ, 130; ---- with inf., 331, IV and a; 270, 2, a; ---- with subjv., 296, 1, a. volt, spelling, 9, 1. voltus, spelling, 8, 1. volucer, decl., 68, 1. voluntÄte, 220, 2. -volus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5 Vowels, 2, 1; ---- sounds of the, 3, 1; ---- quantity of, 5, A; ---- contraction of, 7, 2; ---- parasitic, 7, 3. Vowel changes, 7. vulgus, gender of, 26, 2. -vum, -vus, decl. of nouns in, 24.

W.

Want, verbs and adjs. of, w. abl., 214, 1, c; d. Way by which, abl. of, 218, 9. We, editorial, 242, 3. Whole, gen. of, 201. Wills, use of fut. imperative in, 281, 1, b. Winds, gender of names of, 15, 1. Wish, clauses with dum, etc., expressing a, 310. Wishes, subjunctive in, 279; ---- see Optative subjunctive. Wishing, verbs of, with subst. clause 296, 1; ---- with obj. inf., 331, IV. Word-formation, 146 f. Word-order, 348 f. Word questions, 162, 1.

X.

x, 2, 9; ---- = cs and gs, 32. -x, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by one or more cons., 40, 1, b); ---- gender of nouns in -x of 3d decl., 43, 2; ---- exceptions, 45, 4.

Y.

y, 1, 1. Yes, how expressed, 162, 5. 'You,' indefinite, 356, 3; 280, 3; 302, 2.

Z.

z, 1, 1; 2, 9. Zeugma, 374, 2, a).

* * * * *

FOOTNOTES

[1] Sometimes also called Aryan or _Indo-Germanic_.

[2] Cuneiform means "wedge-shaped." The name applies to the form of the strokes of which the characters consist.

[3] The name Zend is often given to this.

[4] For 'voiceless,' 'surd,' 'hard,' or 'tenuis' are sometimes used.

[5] For 'voiced,' 'sonant,' 'soft,' or 'media' are sometimes used.

[6] In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them; as, Ä, Ä«, Å, etc. Vowels not thus marked are short. Occasionally a curve is set above short vowels; as, Ä•, Å.

[7] To avoid confusion, the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign.

[8] But if the l or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding syllable is always long; as, abrumpÅ.

[9] Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.

[10] Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.

[11] The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category. The principles for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions.

[12] The Stem is often derived from a more primitive form called the Root. Thus, the stem porta- goes back to the root per-, por-. Roots are usually monosyllabic. The addition made to a root to form a stem is called a Suffix. Thus in porta- the suffix is -ta.

[13] There is only one stem ending in -m:--hiems, hiemÄ«s, winter.

[14] MÄ“nsis, month, originally a consonant stem (mÄ“ns-), has in the Genitive Plural both mÄ“nsium and mÄ“nsum. The Accusative Plural is mÄ“nsÄ“s.

[15] This is practically always used instead of alÄ«us in the Genitive.

[16] A Dative Singular Feminine alterae also occurs.

[17] Supplied by vetustior, from vetustus.

[18] Supplied by recentior.

[19] For newest, recentissimus is used.

[20] Supplied by minimus nÄtÅ«.

[21] Supplied by maximus nÄtÅ«.

[22] The final i is sometimes long in poetry.

[23] Forms of hÄ«c ending in -s sometimes append -ce for emphasis; as, hÅ«jusce, _this ... here_; hÅsce, hÄ«sce. When -ne is added, -c and -ce become -ci; as huncine, hÅscine.

[24] For istud, istÅ«c sometimes occurs; for ista, istaec.

[25] For illud, illÅ«c sometimes occurs.

[26] Sometimes quÄ«s.

[27] An ablative quÄ« occurs in quÄ«cum, with whom.

[28] Where the Perfect Participle is not in use, the Future Active Participle, if it occurs, is given as one of the Principal Parts.

[29] The Perfect Participle is wanting in sum.

[30] The meanings of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so many and so varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give them here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax.

[31] For essem, essÄ“s, esset, essent, the forms forem, forÄ“s, foret, forent are sometimes used.

[32] For futÅ«rus esse, the form fore is often used.

[33] Declined like bonus, -a, -um.

[34] The Imperfect also means I loved.

[35] For declension of amÄns, see Â§ 70, 3.

[36] FuÄ«, fuistÄ«, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc. So fueram, fuerÄs, etc., for eram, etc.; fuerÅ, etc., for erÅ, etc.

[37] Fuerim, etc., are sometimes used for sim; so fuissem, etc., for essem.

[38] In actual usage passive imperatives occur only in deponents (Â§ 112).

[39] Strictly speaking, the Present Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (Ä• or Å); as, dÄ«c-Ä•-, dÄ«c-Å-; amÄ-Ä•-, amÄ-Å-. But the multitude of phonetic changes involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here. See the author's Latin Language.

[40] But the compounds of juvÅ sometimes have _-jÅ«tÅ«rus_; as, _adjÅ«tÅ«rus_.

[41] Used only impersonally.

[42] So _impleÅ_, _expleÅ_.

[43] Compounds follow the Fourth Conjugation: _acciÅ_, _accÄ«re_, etc.

[44] Fully conjugated only in the compounds: _exstinguÅ_, _restinguÅ_, _distinguÅ_.

[45] Only in the compounds: _Ä“vÄdÅ_, _invÄdÅ_, _pervÄdÅ_.

[46] It will be observed that not all the forms of ferÅ lack the connecting vowel. Some of them, as ferimus, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the Third Conjugation.

[47] For the Predicate Genitive, see Â§Â§ 198, 3; 203, 5.

[48] Many such verbs were originally intransitive in English also, and once governed the Dative.

[49] This was the original form of the preposition cum.

[50] Place from which, though strictly a Genuine Ablative use, is treated here for sake of convenience.

[51] Especially: moneÅ, admoneÅ; rogÅ, ÅrÅ, petÅ, postulÅ, precor, flÄgitÅ; mandÅ, imperÅ, praecipiÅ; suÄdeÅ, hortor, cohortor; persuÄdeÅ, impellÅ.

[52] Especially: permittÅ, concÄ“dÅ, nÅn patior.

[53] Especially: prohibeÅ, impediÅ, dÄ“terreÅ.

[54] Especially: cÅnstituÅ, dÄ“cernÅ, cÄ“nseÅ, placuit, convenit, pacÄ«scor.

[55] Especially: labÅrÅ, dÅ operam, id agÅ, contendÅ, impetrÅ.

[56] Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as cÅnsiderÄ quam variae sint hominum cupÄ«dinÄ“s, _consider how varied are the desires of men._ (Direct: quam variae sunt hominum cupÄ«dinÄ“s!)

[57] TrÄditÅ«ri fuerint and errÄtÅ«rus fuerÄ«s are to be regarded as representing trÄditÅ«ri fuÄ“runt and errÄtÅ«rus fuistÄ« of Direct Discourse. (See Â§ 304, 3, b.)

[58] Except in Sallust and Silver Latin.

[59] So named from a fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter Î§ (_chi_). Thus:--

multÅs laesÄ« Î§ dÄ“fendÄ« nÄ“minem

[60] The pronouns hic, hoc, and the adverb huc, probably had a short vowel. The syllable was made long by pronouncing hicc, hocc, etc.

[61] Ictus was not accent,--neither stress accent not musical accent,--but was simply the quantitative prominence inherent in the long syllables of fundamental feet.

[62] For explanation of the abbreviations, see p. 257.

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