Chapter 18 [1]Page HistoryLast edited by PBworks 8 years, 5 months ago PLACE IN THE LANGUAGE DRAGON HUMAN CULTURE ... Language is one of the main tools or aids Imperfect thoughts ... this gun case ... prevents and destroys all confidence in its results. John Stuart Mill Between Scylla and Charybdis In the history of artificial languages ??can be divided into two periods. In the first stage (establishment of language Volapuk, Esperanto, and so on. D.) Set an ambitious task of building an international language of the world, designed to increase mutual understanding between people and nations. Unfortunately, due to the extreme complexity of the task and the lack of theoretical study attempt has failed - the mountain gave birth to a mouse. What is surprising: despite the failure of the project has caused public interest and received worldwide recognition. This fact indicates that even at that time the idea of ??"language understanding" touches the nerve center of an important social need. In a second step was taken a more realistic approach "on clothes stretch one's legs." The direction of the search was narrowed sharply, and the reduced scale of the problem is limited to particular tasks to establish formal programming languages. In this way, as is well known, achieved impressive successes. Meanwhile, the problem continued to worsen and misunderstanding today entered a critical phase, which can be characterized as a "paralysis of understanding." There is an urgent need to return again to the idea of ??a universal language comprehension and understanding and critically rethink it. Apparently, a modern language for understanding should be based on a fundamentally different conceptual framework, which allows you a good hold and maneuver the ship a new project in the narrow strait between Scylla pipe "universality" (which crashed Volapuk and Esperanto) and the Charybdis of specialization (which turns language programming nobody understandable Egyptian hieroglyphics and thus unduly restricts their social base). Escape the Scylla is quite simple - we just have to give up the idea of ??an ambitious universal language (which is likely to build in principle, impossible) and to focus on the creation of private languages, each of which is useful in its field, which, however, should not be too narrow. It is much harder to get rid of Charybdis language specialization (when the language is created "just for its") and come up with a universal language, capable of satisfying the interests of the different groups. The challenge is to find a life-saving idea that would dramatically expand the bridgehead social language and make it useful for millions. It is necessary to turn the language understandable only to members of any one narrow caste (eg programmers), in language understanding for a wide range of knowledge workers and students. Principles of structuring ACTIVITIES To clarify the essence of the question, let us return once more to the structural programming. Theorem Bohm and Dzhakopini follows that the logical structure of the program can be expressed by a combination of a limited number of basic structures. This means that the idea of ??the structural designs of the program gives the reader a much-needed compass. Making his way through the jungle of the program text, it becomes like a "third eye": a partition of a complex program for the structural design makes it easier to understand and easier to work. In the language of ergonomics, this is achieved through the consolidation of operational units of perception ^1. The greatest disadvantage is not structured programming in the art, and social plane. The fact that this method helps to improve the mind of people a very small number, namely - programmers. All other knowledge workers do not have this "holiday" irrelevant and did not win. Fortunately, this shortcoming can and should be eliminated, because the idea of structuring is universal and can be generalized to any activity related to any social and professional groups. The principle of structuring activities. Any business activity, regardless of its nature, complexity, professional affiliation, social orientation, and the domain can be described by a limited number of structural designs that can be characterized as a logical invariants activities. As the latter are encouraged to use the visual design of structured programming, or that one and the same, the design of visual syntax tehnoyazyka dragon. Examples of this principle are explained in Chap. 13. General conceptual scheme Programming is a particular type of activity. This is historically the first type of activities to which the principle was applied structuring. Generalization of this principle to any activity we consider to be desired "saving idea" as an important step, which has a direct bearing on the main issue - the issue of improving the functioning of the mind. This conclusion is self-explanatory. Fig. 138 is a diagram which allows to identify the eight sources (prerequisites), a joint analysis of which gives rise to "short circuit" of ideas, the consequence of which is the principle of structuring activities. 1. The first source is taken in artificial intelligence division of knowledge into declarative and procedural. 2. For our purposes, this scheme is subject to some changes (Fig. 138, section 2): * it is assumed that it is the written representation of knowledge intended for human visual perception; * are not entirely successful, the term "treatment" is replaced by the more familiar and widespread word "technology" (see. Sec. 3); * technological knowledge are divided into command and control (see. ch. 12). 3. A third source is structured programming (Fig. 138, part 3). 4. Further development of the structural ideas leads to a transition from text to structured programming visual (Fig. 138, Block 4), since the latter has numerous advantages, discussed in detail in Chap. 16. 5. Fifth source are flowcharts that found widespread since the early days of programming. 6. The next step of reasoning leads to the abandonment of the block diagrams and replacing them with a dragon design (Fig. 138, Block 6), which have undeniable advantages (see. Ch. 6-16). 7. As a seventh source is numbered icons (Fig. 138, section 7). 8. Finally, the last source is a generalized interpretation of the notion of "activities" (Fig. 138, Block 8), covering not only acts committed by people, but also the operations performed by machines. Last viewed as delegated activities, the performance of which the person requests the (delegate) designed their technical devices. It is important to emphasize that tehnoyazyk DRAGON provides a single standard means for describing itself as a human and delegated (machine) activity. With this system it is possible to vision and analysis of the problems, because at the same drawing both types of action are shown interconnected in a single algorithm - as his alternate fragments. The diagram in Fig. 138 named general conceptual scheme, as it sums up a significant part of the contents of the book, presents it in a concise form, shows a panorama of the main ideas and concepts of the relationship, it allows to visualize trace the reasoning and logic of thought. Problems of activity in ergonomics The two concepts: "algorithm" and "activities" represent two great countries that lie on different scientific continents separated by oceans and mutual alienation and distrust. These are two of the world (the world of mathematics and programming, and the world of ergonomics and human sciences), which is dominated by a different style of scientific thinking. These are two enormous field of very profound and subtle investigations, among which is necessary to build a bridge of understanding and strong with heavy two-way traffic of ideas. Construction of the bridge, we consider a generalization of the highest rank, closely linked with the problem of improving the work of the mind and is capable of paving the way for a powerful new scientific breakthroughs. The category of activity is the most important in the ergonomic knowledge. Activities in ergonomics acts as: 1. the subject of an objective scientific study; 2. facility management; 3. the subject of design and simulation; 4. subject multidisciplinary assessment. According to V. Munipova, research activities related to, inter alia: * the problem of construction and reconstruction jobs, the formation of a combination of individual transactions and actions constituting the integrated activity; * with the development of the scientific organization and safety, all the sciences that study labor rights in order to address important economic tasks - dramatically increasing productivity and quality of work. Exploration activities in a large number of works. By the mid-60s have been developed methods algorithmization human operator performing the functions of monitoring and control of technological units (D. Ageikin A. Galaktionov). Over the years, studied the activity of air traffic controller (M. Gruzdev) Manager railway junction (Zavalishina D. and V. Pushkin), remote operator control of technological processes (D. Oshanin V. Venda), operational personnel of power plants (S. Hajiyev, K . Gurevich). Developed an algorithmic approach to the analysis of the operator (A. Galaktionov, A. Chachkov). G. Zarakovskim formalized language was designed to record and analyze professiogram drivers and steering large ships. The results of this field will advance to the creation of mathematical models, methods of quantitative evaluation of the effectiveness and reliability of the human operator to determine its load, to approach the important problems of engineering psychology - the distribution of functions between man and machine in the "man-machine". There have been developed various concepts and approaches to the design of the operator's activity. * A systematic approach to the analysis and optimization of human-machine interaction (B. Lomov). * Psychophysiological and algorithmic analysis of (G. Zarakovsky). * Structural-layered concept of heuristic information processing operator (V. Rubakhin). * The principle of "inclusion" (Krylov). * Structural and algorithmic approach to the analysis and design activities (G. Sukhodolskiy). * Functional-structural theory (A. Guba). * Structurally-psychological concept (V. Venda). * The concept of the genesis of psychological operations (V. Shadrikov). * The concept of idealized structures activities (A. Galaktionov). Analyzing the ergonomic problems of designing and modeling activities, we note a variety of different approaches and methods, among which occupies a worthy place algorithmic (procedural) approach. Unfortunately, existing methods of describing algorithms largely outdated and do not allow to fully identify all the advantages of this method. It seems that the use of language DRAGON as the standard for describing the structure of activity - in a reasonable combination with other methods - will make a significant step forward in solving many problems associated with the creation of modern man-machine systems. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: ALGORITHMIZATION - a nightmare! Current science is similar to a labyrinth made up of cells, some of which are hermetically isolated from each other.Representatives of different disciplines at times as it were "not hear" each other. So today, more than ever, we need universally valid languages, suitable for all, capable of "crack" interdisciplinary barriers and enhance mutual understanding between different units of scientists. As an example, consider the "conflicting" statements of some experts in artificial intelligence (AI) and engineering psychology. Specialists in AI: Down algorithmization! In many cases it is useful to distinguish between two questions: What should be done? and how to do? Most supporters of AI defend the principle of priority of declarative knowledge, according to which a person is much easier to answer the question "what" than "how?" So they call to abandon the mandatory language (such as "how to") and replace them with declarative languages ??(languages "what"). The advantage, according to them, because the programmer is much more convenient to give the definition of situations and formulate objectives, instead of all the details to describe the way to solve these problems. When declarative approach the programmer is not required to construct an algorithm that solves the problem, since the program changed its appearance and "will always be logically describe the task itself, not the process of decision." So why should abandon algorithms? This is for three reasons. First, the declarative description - it is a good (rational), the description, and procedural - poor (irrational), so "requirement of procedural description of the problem from the very beginning by means abandoning streamline problem." Secondly, human brains are not suitable for the creation and understanding of algorithms that we (humans) "hardly compose algorithms, because this concept is unusual to us," for "people's actions did not seem to work the usual algorithms." On this basis (and third), extremists of AI claim that soon declarative languages ??will win a world-historic victory over procedural "scallywag"; last - the language of the accursed past, and declarative languages ??winners - this, of course, "language of the future." Such, or approximately such arguments found in the works, if not all, the many experts in artificial intelligence, becoming a kind of common place, a kind of "creed" AI. The question naturally arises whether these arguments conclusive and, if so, under what conditions these proofs are valid? Engineering psychologists algorithmization activity - our salvation! Unlike the majority of AI professionals ergonomists in no hurry to bring algorithms anathema. Why is that? In particular, because "algorithms are the only means of expression ... the objective of the regulatory components of operator activity and initiative of action and interaction that is algorithmization are only components of the personal professional experience of skilled operators. So, remain inaccessible for the training of operating personnel for effectivization carrier and humanization of work. Algorithmization actions and interactions is the most important result and the basis for the remaining results of the psychological engineering design of operator activity. Another example. A group of military ergonomists studying the problem of interaction of crew members of aircraft multi-aircraft equipment failure in flight. It turned out that about half of flight accidents occurring on multi planes due to failures in flight could be prevented by optimal interaction between the crew members. How to achieve optimal? The authors propose a method to improve the education and training of crews, stressing that the training "of considerable importance have forms and ways of presenting information to crew members on the order of their interaction." According to studies the authors conclude that the most appropriate form of presentation of this information is "an algorithmic method" in which the diagram is presented in graphical form. Educators: algorithmization - it's good! Although some teachers after R. Kowalski are active experiments on introduction in secondary schools Prolog, the majority of scientists working in the field of secondary education, apparently, are supporters of imperative languages. According to them, the development of algorithmic style of thinking students "is the main objective of the course of computer science" as a school course "should follow the science and procedural tradition is today the leading and most developed." Who is right: deklarativisty or imperativisty? In our view, imperative and declarative approaches are not alternatives, but complementary: one range of tasks better suited first method of knowledge representation to another - the second one. Such a balanced position replaces extremism continues and begins to win more and more supporters. In particular, V. Sergeev, analyzing "procedural and declarative controversy" makes the following conclusion: "It seems to us that these two approaches reveal the two sides are two ways of human thinking and some are optional in the sense in which the different views in the form of particles and waves are present in the principle of complementarity Bohr. " Summarizing the above, we can offer a few comments. * Statements such as "peremptory methods irrational", "man is easier to describe the problem than its solution process", "people hardly make algorithms, because the very notion it is unusual" does not contain the necessary restrictive formulas and do not meet the criteria for scientific rigor. Simply put, they are unfounded and unsubstantiated. There is a large class of problems for which the said provisions fundamentally wrong. * The paradox is that artificial intelligence as a scientific discipline does not need the above invalid (not to say - absurd) statements, as real and universally recognized achievements of artificial intelligence are completely independent of this misleading verbal tinsel. Last reminds dust-track that ministers have forgotten to erase the golden statuette. * Although the argument of "declarative all good, all bad imperative" and its many variations are incorrect, however, in the period of "childhood" AI they have played a positive and catalytic role in bringing together the AI ??specialist in the fight against the common "enemy imperative" and thus concentrating their attention on the pioneering idea of ??declarative language. However, now that declarative problem is solved, there is no need to save the image of the mythical "imperative the enemy." Today - in the era of maturity of artificial intelligence - the specified argument itself completely compromised and should be discarded. Moor has done his work, the Moor to go. Ergonomic analysis of design activity The social significance of language as a tool of DRAGON to describe the structure of activity is closely linked to the special role that the activities (as a concept and a social phenomenon) plays in the system of human culture. According to V. Sagatovsky, "activity - it is a fundamental philosophical concept, comparable in its generality, the categories of social being and consciousness ... This is a key concept for understanding the specifics" of the world of man. "Many books and articles that speak of the importance of the principle activities of the need to approach the activity, sometimes even proclaimed the idea of ??a "general theory of activity." History, remarked classic is nothing but the activity of man pursuing his aims. Today presentation on the activities begin to change radically. What is the change? For thousands of years human activity has not been designed and formed spontaneously. However, at the present stage acutely raises the question of design, modeling and formalization description of the activities that are useful in solving many problems. The question of designing activity was first raised B. Lomov in 1967 as part of the engineering psychology, since the project activity is to act as a basis for solving all remaining tasks of building systems "man-machine". In the first stage engineering psychology and ergonomics focused on the design of an operator (pilot, controller and so on. D.), As a profession operator became widespread and in some cases proved decisive. However, the operator "boom" could not last indefinitely. It became clear that an intensive study of the activities of the operator does not remove from the agenda the other necessary research, especially research activities of designers and engineers (B. Moliako, 1983). Design activity - one of the most difficult types of intellectual creative labor. This activity is becoming increasingly important, as it affects the creation of new types of equipment, the development of complex socio-technical systems (eg, automated control systems), development of new technical and social projects and technologies, and so on. D. Improving the efficiency of the design of human activities due to the acceleration of technological progress involves the development of engineering and psychological means and methods of activating creativity designer with the general concepts of the theory of activity. PITFALLS design activity In many cases, the cause of industrial accidents and disasters are the design and construction defects. Equipment failures caused by them can be divided into two groups: 1. fatal (which is impossible to predict in advance); 2. other (let's call them defects). Fatal failures due to the fact that our knowledge is limited. Similar failures occur only when the research and design team was faced with a new, hitherto unknown facts or phenomena. Such cases we exclude from consideration because no court no. If science is not able to anticipate and prevent the negative consequences, there is a desperate situation when an accident may be inevitable. The case is somewhat simplified by the fact that the failures and accidents often caused by non-fatal faults and defects .The term "failure" describes a situation when an accident does not result in an increment of scientific knowledge, because all the necessary information to prevent it was known in advance, but was not used. Why is that? There are three reasons for this: * to avoid the defect and prevent the accident, the designer must compare and logically linked too many well-known facts, ie. e. to perform a tremendous amount of mental work is much greater than the real possibilities of his brain; * well-known facts are in the minds of different people, among whom there is no proper intellectual understanding and cooperation on the basis of well-established communication; * the designer lack of motivation to carry out the work, resulting in the irresponsibility and negligence (this case we do not consider, as today there are effective mechanisms for management of motivation). The first two cases are of greatest interest, so that the cause of the defect is the lack of awareness and understanding. One of the ways to prevent defects - ergonomizatsiya science and design activity with the help of special tools that improve the work of the mind, all of whom recently took the language of dragons. Generalizing this idea, you should raise the question of a qualitatively new step in the development of ergonomic ideas and spread the concept of "project activity" on a complex creative activity. The transition to evidence-based design of creative activities such as design activity - is a fundamentally new and extremely complex task that requires the creation of new theoretical tools. Errors are not allowed, as the unfortunate design of design activity can lead to serious negative consequences. Many accidents are the primary cause of the disaster, and not just the man (human operator), who ran the technique at the time of the accident, but also other people who designed this imperfect technique and created enough organization and acceptable working conditions for performers. In this regard, a number of theoretical problems, which are analyzed below by the example of the Chernobyl accident. WHY exploded Chernobyl reactor? The traditional approach to the analysis of the causes of the Chernobyl accident According to the traditional view, the accident at Chernobyl Unit is due to several reasons: * scientific fallacy (were not disclosed and understood physical characteristics that existed prior to the accident of RBMK reactor core, consisting of the large positive void coefficient of reactivity and spatial instability of the neutron flux); * structural defect of reactor control and protection; * Error operatives who broke the rules and brought the reactor into a state in which the system of protection (due to design defects mentioned) could not prevent the explosion. Legitimately ask whether these explanations exhaustive? Do they provide an opportunity to identify the "true" culprit of the Chernobyl disaster? Do they allow - if you look at the problem from the standpoint of a particular case, even an important and tragic, and a system approach to the analysis of the global challenges posed by the increasing complexity of steady civilization processes, - to create a science-based Dependable and mechanisms to prevent large-scale disasters and accidents? In our opinion, these questions should be answered in the negative. Can the activities of dependable? The history of science and technology - is not only the successes and achievements. This originated in the mists of a continuous chain of errors, mistakes and omissions, the negative effects are gradually increased, until finally he reached the dramatic scale of the Chernobyl incident. According to experts, "Chernobyl accident - the greatest disaster in the history of the E References Visible links 1. https://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?act=url&depth=1&hl=en&ie=UTF8&prev=_t&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=auto&tl=en&u=http://drakon.pbworks.com/w/page-revisions/18205505/%25D0%2593%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B0%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B0%252018&usg=ALkJrhjoZqzJlYVoIEfPiV_2rYGgN0ZlTQ